Latin Texts & Translations

WE have now given an account of the animals which we call terrestrial, and which live as it were in a sort of society with man. Among the remaining ones, it is well known that the birds are the smallest; we shall therefore first describe those which inhabit the seas, rivers, and standing waters.

(2.) Among these there are many to be found that exceed in size any of the terrestrial animals even; the evident cause of which is the superabundance of moisture with which they are supplied. Very different is the lot of the winged animals, whose life is passed soaring aloft in the air. But in the seas, spread out as they are far and wide, forming an element at once so delicate and so vivifying, and receiving the generating principles ^[Note] from the regions of the air, as they are ever produced by Nature, many animals are to be found, and indeed, most of those that are of monstrous form; from the fact, no doubt, that these seeds and first principles of being are so utterly conglomerated and so involved, the one with the other, from being whirled to and fro, now by the action of the winds and now by the waves. Hence it is that the vulgar notion may very possibly be true, that whatever is produced in any other department of Nature, is to be found in the sea as well; while, at the same time, many other productions are there to be found which nowhere else exist. That there are to be found in the sea the forms, not only of terrestrial animals, but of inanimate objects even, is easily to be understood by all who will take the

trouble to examine the grape-fish, ^[Note] the sword-fish, ^[Note] the sawfish, ^[Note] and the cucumber-fish, ^[Note] which last so strongly resembles the real cucumber both in colour and in smell. We shall find the less reason then to be surprised to find that in so small an object as a shell-fish ^[Note] the head of the horse is to be seen protruding from the shell.

But the most numerous and largest of all these animals are those found in the Indian seas; among which there are balænæ, ^[Note] four jugera ^[Note] in extent, and the pristis, ^[Note] two hundred cubits

long: here also are found cray-fish ^[Note] four cubits in length, and in the river Ganges there are to be seen eels three hundred ^[Note] feet long. But at sea it is more especially about the time of the solstices that these monsters are to be seen. For then it is that in these regions the whirlwind comes sweeping on, the rains descend, the hurricane comes rushing down, hurled from the mountain heights, while the sea is stirred up from the very bottom, and the monsters are driven from their depths and rolled upwards on the crest of the billow. At other times again, there are such vast multitudes of tunnies met with, that the fleet of Alexander the Great was able to make head against them only by facing them in order of battle, just as it would have done an enemy's fleet. Had the ships not done this, but proceeded in a straggling manner, they could not possibly have made their escape. No noises, no sounds, no blows had any effect on these fish; by nothing short of the clash of battle were they to be terrified, and by nothing less than their utter destruction were they overpowered.

There is a large peninsula in the Red Sea, known by the name of Cadara: ^[Note] as it projects into the deep it forms a vast gulf, which it took the fleet of King Ptolemy ^[Note] twelve whole days and nights to traverse by dint of rowing, for not a breath of wind was to be perceived. In the recesses of this becalmed spot more particularly, the sea-monsters attain so vast a size that they are quite unable to move. The commanders of the fleets of Alexander the Great have related that the Gedrosi, ^[Note] who dwell upon the banks of the river Ara-

bis, ^[Note] are in the habit of making the doors of their houses with the jaw-bones ^[Note] of fishes, and raftering the roofs with their bones, many of which were found as much as forty cubits in length. At this place, too, the sea-monsters, just like so many cattle, ^[Note] were in the habit of coming on shore, and, after feeding on the roots of shrubs, they would return; some of them, which had the heads of horses, ^[Note] asses, and bulls, found a pasture in the crops of grain.

The largest animals found in the Indian Sea are the pistrix and the balæna; while of the Gallic Ocean the physeter ^[Note] is

the most bulky inhabitant, raising itself aloft like some vast column, and as it towers above the sails of ships, belching forth, as it were, a deluge of water. In the ocean of Gades there is a tree, ^[Note] with outspread branches so vast, that it is supposed that it is for that reason it has never yet entered the Straits. There are fish also found there which are called sea-wheels, ^[Note] in consequence of their singular conformation; they are divided by four spokes, the nave being guarded on every side by a couple of eyes.

A deputation of persons from Olisipo, ^[Note] that had been sent for the purpose, brought word to the Emperor Tiberius that a triton had been both seen and heard in a certain cavern, blowing a conch-shell, ^[Note] and of the form under which they are usually

represented. Nor yet is the figure generally attributed to the nereids ^[Note] at all a fiction; only in them, the portion of the body that resembles the human figure is still rough all over with scales. For one of these creatures was seen upon the same shores, and as it died, its plaintive murmurs were heard even by the inhabitants at a distance. The legatus of Gaul, ^[Note] too, wrote word to the late Emperor Augustus that a considerable number of nereids had been found dead upon the sea-shore. I have, too, some distinguished informants of equestrian rank, who state that they themselves once saw in the ocean of Gades a sea-man, ^[Note] which bore in every part of his body a perfect resemblance to a human being, and that during the night he would climb up into ships; upon which the side of the vessel where he seated himself would instantly sink downward, and if he remained there any considerable time, even go under water.

In the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, a subsidence of the ocean left exposed on the shores of an island which faces the province of Lugdunum ^[Note] as many as three hundred animals or more, all at once, quite marvellous for their varied shapes and enormous size, and no less a number upon the shores of the

Santones; ^[Note] among the rest there were elephants ^[Note] and rams, which last, however, had only a white spot to represent horns. Turranius has also left accounts of several nereids, and he speaks of a monster ^[Note] that was thrown up on the shore at Gades, the distance between the two fins at the end of the tail of which was sixteen cubits, and its teeth one hundred and twenty in number; the largest being nine, and the smallest six inches in length.

M. Scaurus, in his ædileship, exhibited at Rome, among other wonderful things, the bones of the monster to which Andromeda was said to have been exposed, and which he had brought from Joppa, a city of Judæa. These bones exceeded forty feet in length, and the ribs were higher than those of the Indian elephant, while the back-bone was a foot and a half ^[Note] in thickness.

The balæna ^[Note] penetrates to our seas even. It is said that they are not to be seen in the ocean of Gades before the winter solstice, and that at periodical seasons they retire and conceal themselves in some calm capacious bay, in which they take a delight in bringing forth. This fact, however, is known to the orca, ^[Note] an animal which is peculiarly hostile to the balæna, and the form of which cannot be in any way adequately described, but as an enormous mass of flesh armed with teeth. This animal attacks the balænain its places of retirement, and with its teeth tears its young, or else attacks the females which have just brought forth, and, indeed, while they are still pregnant: and as they rush upon them, it pierces them just as though they had been attacked by the beak of a Liburnian ^[Note] galley. The female balænæ, devoid of all flexibility, without energy to defend themselves, and over-burdened by their own weight, weakened, too, by gestation, or else the pains of recent parturition, are well aware that their only resource is to take to flight

in the open sea and to range over the whole face of the ocean; while the orcæ, on the other hand, do all in their power to meet them in their flight, throw themselves in their way, and kill them either cooped up in a narrow passage, or else drive them on a shoal, or dash them to pieces against the rocks. When these battles are witnessed, it appears just as though the sea were infuriate against itself; not a breath of wind is there to be felt in the bay, and yet the waves by their pantings and their repeated blows are heaved aloft in a way which no whirlwind could effect.

An orca has been seen even in the port of Ostia, where it was attacked by the Emperor Claudius. It was while he was constructing the harbour ^[Note] there that this orca came, attracted by some hides which, having been brought from Gaul, had happened to fall overboard ^[Note] there. By feeding upon these for several days it had quite glutted itself, having made for itself a, channel in the shoaly water. Here, however, the sand was thrown up by the action of the wind to such an extent, that the creature found it quite impossible to turn round; and while in the act of pursuing its prey, it was propelled by the waves towards the shore, so that its back came to be perceived above the level of the water, very much resembling in appearance the keel of a vessel turned bottom upwards. Upon this, Cæsar ordered a great number of nets to be extended at the mouth of the harbour, from shore to shore, while he himself went there with the prætorian cohorts, and so afforded a spectacle to the Roman people; for boats assailed the monster, while the soldiers on board showered lances upon it. I myself saw one of the boats ^[Note] sunk by the water which the animal, as it respired, showered down upon it.

Balænæ have the mouth ^[Note] in the forehead; and hence it is that, as they swim on the surface of the water, they discharge vast showers of water in the air. (7.) It is universally agreed, however, that they respire, as do a very few other animals ^[Note] in the sea, which have lungs among the internal viscera; for without lungs it is generally supposed that no animal can breathe. Those, too, who are of this opinion are of opinion also that no fishes that have gills are so constituted as to inhale and exhale alternately, nor, in fact, many other kinds of animals even, which are entirely destitute of gills. This, I find, was the opinion of Aristotle, ^[Note] who, by his learned researches ^[Note] on the subject, has induced many others to be of the same way of thinking. I shall not, however, conceal the fact, that I for one do not by any means at once subscribe to this opinion, for it is very possible, if such be the will of Nature, that there may be other organs ^[Note] fitted for the purposes of respiration, and acting in the place of lungs; just as in many animals a different liquid altogether takes the place of blood. ^[Note] And who, in fact, can find any ground for surprise that the breath of life can penetrate the waters of the deep, when he

sees that it is even exhaled ^[Note] from them? and when we find, too, that it can even enter the very depths of the earth, an element of so much greater density, a thing that is proved by the case of animals which always live under ground, the mole for instance? There are other weighty reasons as well, which induce me to be of opinion that all aquatic animals respire, conformably to their natural organization; for, in the first place, there has been often remarked in fishes a certain degree of anhelation during the heat of summer, and at other times again, a kind of leisurely gaping, ^[Note] as it were. And then, besides, we have the admission of those who are of the contrary opinion, that fishes do sleep; but what possibility is there of sleeping ^[Note] without respiring as well? And again, we see their breath disengaged in bubbles which rise to the water's surface, and the influence too of the moon makes even the very shells ^[Note] grow in bulk.

But the most convincing reason of all is, the undoubted fact that fishes have the power of hearing ^[Note] and of smelling, two senses for the operation of both of which the air is a necessary vehicle; for by smell we understand nothing else than the air being charged with certain particles. ^[Note] However, let every person form his own opinion on these subjects, just in such way as he may think best.

Neither the balæna nor the dolphin has any gills. ^[Note] Both

of these animals respire ^[Note] through vent-holes, which communicate with the lungs; in the balæna they are on the fore- head, ^[Note] and in the dolphin on the back. Sea-calves, too, which we call "phocæ," ^[Note] breathe and sleep upon dry land—sea- tortoises also, ^[Note] of which we shall have more to say hereafter.

The swiftest ^[Note] not only of the sea animals, but of all animals whatever, is the dolphin. ^[Note] He is more rapid in his move-

ments than a bird, more instantaneous than the flight of an arrow, and were it not for the fact that his mouth is situate much below his muzzle, ^[Note] almost, indeed, in the middle of the belly, not a fish would be able to escape his pursuit. But Nature, ^[Note] in her prudence, has thrown certain impediments in his way; for unless he turns, and throws himself on his back, he can seize nothing, and it is this circumstance more especially that gives proof of his extraordinary swiftness. For, if pressed by hunger, ^[Note] he will follow a fish, as it flies down, to the very bottom of the water, and then after holding his breath thus long, will dart again to the surface to respire, with the speed of an arrow discharged from a bow; and often, on such occasions, he is known to leap out of the water with such a bound, as to fly right over the sails ^[Note] of a ship.

Dolphins generally go in couples; the females bring forth their young in the tenth month, during the summer season, sometimes two in number. ^[Note] They suckle their young at the teat like the balæna, and even carry them during the weakness of infancy; in addition to which, long after they are grown up, they accompany them, so great is their affection for their progeny. The young ones grow very speedily, and in ten years are supposed to arrive at their full size. The dol-

phin lives thirty years; a fact that has been ascertained from cutting marks ^[Note] on the tail, by way of experiment. It conceals itself for thirty days, at about the rising of the Dog-star, and hides itself so effectually, that it is not known whither it goes; a thing that is more surprising still, if it is unable to respire under water. Dolphins are in the habit of darting upon the shore, for some reason or other, it is not known ^[Note] what. They do not die the moment that they touch the dry land, but will die much more speedily if the vent-hole is closed. The tongue, contrary to the nature of aquatic animals in general, is moveable, being short and broad, not much unlike that of the pig. Instead of a voice, they emit a moaning sound ^[Note] similar to that made by a human being; the back is arched, and the nose turned up. For this reason ^[Note] it is that they all recognize in a most surprising manner the name of Simo, and prefer to be called by that rather than by any other.

The dolphin is an animal not only friendly to man, but a lover of music as well; he is charmed by melodious concerts, ^[Note]

and more especially by the notes of the water-organ. ^[Note] He does not dread man, as though a stranger to him, but comes to meet ships, leaps and bounds to and fro, vies with them in swiftness, and passes them even when in full sail.

In the reign ^[Note] of the late Emperor Augustus, a dolphin which had been carried to the Lucrine Lake ^[Note] conceived a most wonderful affection for the child of a certain poor man, who was in the habit of going that way from Baiæ to Puteoll ^[Note] to school, and who used to stop there in the middle of the day, call him by his name of Simo, and would often entice him to the banks of the lake with pieces of bread which he carried for the purpose. I should really have felt ashamed to mention this, had not the incident been stated in writing in the works of Mæcenas, Fabianus, Flavius Alfius, and many others. At whatever hour of the day he might happen to be called by the boy, and although hidden and out of sight at the bottom of the water, he would instantly fly to the surface, and after feeding from his hand, would present his back for him to mount, taking care to conceal the spiny projection of his fins ^[Note] in their sheath, as it were; and so, sportively taking him up on his back, he would carry him over a wide expanse

of sea to the school at Puteoli, and in a similar manner bring him back again. This happened for several years, until at last the boy happened to fall ill of some malady, and died. The dolphin, however, still came to the spot as usual, with a sorrowful air and manifesting every sign of deep affliction, until at last, a thing of which no one felt the slightest doubt, he died purely of sorrow and regret.

Within these few years also, ^[Note] another at Hippo Diarrhytus, ^[Note] on the coast of Africa, in a similar manner used to receive his food from the hands of various persons, present himself for their caresses, sport about among the swimmers, and carry them on his back. On being rubbed with unguents by Flavianus, the then proconsul of Africa, he was lulled to sleep, as it appeared, by the sensation of an odour so new to him, and floated about just as though he had been dead. For some months after this, he carefully avoided all intercourse with man, just as though he had received some affront or other; but at the end of that time he returned, and afforded just the same wonderful scenes as before. At last, the vexations that were caused them by having to entertain so many influential men who came to see this sight, compelled the people of Hippo to put the animal to death.

Before this, there was a similar story told of a child at the city of Iasus, ^[Note] for whom a dolphin was long observed to have conceived a most ardent affection, until at last, as the animal was eagerly following him as he was making for the shore, ^[Note] it was carried by the tide on the sands, and there expired. Alexander the Great appointed this boy ^[Note] high priest of Neptune at Babylon, interpreting this extraordinary attachment as a convincing proof of the favour of that divinity.

Hegesidemus has also informed us, that in the same city ^[Note] of

lasus there was another boy also, Hermias by name, who in a similar manner used to traverse the sea on a dolphin's back, but that on one occasion a tempest suddenly arising, he lost his life, and was brought back dead; upon which, the dolphin, who thus admitted that he had been the cause of his death, would not return to the sea, but lay down upon the dry land, and there expired.

Theophrastus ^[Note] informs us, that the very same thing happened at Naupactus also; nor, in fact, is there any limit to similar instances. The Amphilochians ^[Note] and the Tarentines ^[Note] have similar stories also about children and dolphins; and all these give an air of credibility to the one that is told of Arion, ^[Note] the famous performer on the lyre. The mariners being on the point of throwing him into the sea, for the purpose of taking possession of the money he had earned, he prevailed upon them to allow him one more song, accompanied with the music of his lyre. The melody attracted numbers of dolphins around the ship, and, upon throwing himself into the sea, he was taken up by one of them, and borne in safety to the shore of the Promontory of Tænarum. ^[Note]

There is in the province of Gallia Narbonensis and in the territory of Nemausus ^[Note] a lake known by the name of Latera, ^[Note] where dolphins fish in company with men. At the

narrow outlet ^[Note] of this lake, at stated seasons of the year innumerable multitudes of mullets make their way into the sea, taking advantage of the turn of the tide; hence it is that it is quite impossible to employ nets sufficiently strong to bear so vast a weight, even though the fish had not the instinctive shrewdness to watch their opportunity. By a similar instinct the fish immediately make with all speed towards the deep water which is found in a gulf in that vicinity, and hasten to escape from the only spot that is at all convenient for spreading the nets. As soon as ever the fishermen perceive this, all the people—for great multitudes resort thither, being well aware of the proper time, and especially desirous of sharing in the amusement—shout as loud as they can, and summon Simo to the scene of action. The dolphins very quickly understand that they are in requisition, as a north-east wind speedily carries the sound to their retreats, though a south one would somewhat retard it by carrying it in an opposite direction. Even then however, sooner than you could have possibly supposed, there are the dolphins, in all readiness to assist. They are seen approaching in all haste in battle array, and, imme- diately taking up their position when the engagement is about to take place, they cut off all escape to the open sea, and drive the terrified fish into shallow water. The fishermen then throw their nets, holding them up at the sides with forks, though the mullets with inconceivable agility instantly leap over them; ^[Note]

while the dolphins, on the other hand, are waiting in readiness to receive them, and content themselves for the present with killing them only, postponing all thoughts of eating till after they have secured the victory. The battle waxes hot apace, and the dolphins, pressing on with the greatest vigour, readily allow themselves to be enclosed in the nets; but in order that the fact of their being thus enclosed may not urge the enemy to find additional means of flight, they glide along so stealthily among the boats and nets, or else the swimmers, as not to leave them any opening for escape. By leaping, which at other times is their most favourite amusement, not one among them attempts to make its escape, unless, indeed, the nets are purposely lowered for it; and the instant that it has come out it continues the battle, as it were, up to the very ramparts. At last, when the capture is now completed, they devour those among the fish which they have killed; ^[Note] but being well aware that they have given too active an assistance to be repaid with only one day's reward, they take care to wait there till the following day, when they are filled not only with fish, but bread crumbs soaked in wine as well.

The account which Mucianus gives of a similar mode of fishing in the Iasian Gulf differs from the preceding one, in the fact that there the dolphins make their appearance of their own accord, and do not require to be called: they receive their share from the hands of the people, each boat having its own particular associate among the dolphins; and this, although the fishing is carried on at night-time by the light ^[Note] of torches. If the latter is the meaning, Pliny probably intends to speak only of what some of them are able to do: otherwise it is hard to see of what utility the nets were in the operation.

Dolphins, also, form among themselves ^[Note] a sort of general community. One of them having been captured by a king of Caria and chained up in the harbour, great multitudes of dolphins assembled at the spot, and with signs of sorrow which could not be misunderstood, appealed to the sympathies of the people, until at last the king ordered it to be released. The young dolphins, also, are always attended ^[Note] by a larger one, who acts as a guardian to them; and before now, they have been seen ^[Note] carrying off the body of one which had died, that it might not be devoured by the sea-monsters.

There is a fish called the tursio, ^[Note] which bears a strong resemblance to the dolphin; it differs from it, however, in a certain air of sadness, and is wanting in its peculiar vivacity. This animal most resembles the dog-fish, ^[Note] however, in the shape and dangerous powers of the muzzle.

The Indian Sea ^[Note] produces turtles of such vast ^[Note] size, that with the shell of a single animal they are able to roof a habit-

able cottage; ^[Note] and among the islands of the Red Sea, the navigation is mostly carried on in boats formed of these shells. They are to be caught in many ways; but they are generally taken when they have come up to the surface of the water just before midday, a season at which they experience great delight in floating on the calm surface, with the back entirely out of the water. Here the delightful sensations ^[Note] which attend a free respiration beguile them to such a degree, and render them so utterly regardless of their safety, that their shell becomes dried up by the heat of the sun, so much so, indeed, that they are unable to descend, and, having to float against their will, become an easy prey to the fishermen. It is said also, that they leave the water at night for the purpose of feeding, and eat with such avidity as to quite glut themselves: upon which, they become weary, and the moment that, on their return in the morning, they reach the sea, they fall asleep on the surface of the water. The noise of their snoring betrays them, upon which the fishermen stealthily swim towards the animals, three to each turtle; two of them, in a moment, throw it on its back, while a third slings a noose around it, as it lies face upwards, and then some more men, who are ready on shore, draw it to land.

In the Phoenician Sea they are taken without the slightest difficulty, and, at stated periods of the year, come of their own accord to the river Eleutherus, ^[Note] in immense numbers. The turtle has no teeth, but the edge of the mouth is sharp, the upper part shutting down over the lower just like the lid of a box. In the sea it lives upon shell-fish, ^[Note] and such is the strength of its jaws, that it is able to break stones even; when on shore, it feeds upon herbage. The female turtle lays eggs like those of birds, one hundred in number; these she buries on the dry land, and covering them over with earth, pats it down with her breast, and then having thus rendered it smooth, sits on them during the night. The young are hatched in the course of a

year. Some persons are of opinion that they hatch their eggs by means of the eyes, by merely looking at them, and that the female refuses to have any intercourse with the male until he has placed a wisp of straw ^[Note] upon her back. The Troglodytæ have turtles with horns, ^[Note] which resemble the branches of a lyre; they are large, but moveable, and assist the animal like so many oars while swimming. The name of this fine, but rarely-found turtle, is "chelyon;" ^[Note] for the rocks, from the sharpness of their points, frighten away the Chelonophagi, ^[Note] while the Troglodytæ, whose shores these animals frequent, worship them as sacred. There are some land turtles also, the shells of which, used for the purposes of art, are thence called by the name of "chersinæ; ^[Note] they are found in the deserts of Africa, in the parts where the scorched sands are more especially destitute of water, and subsist, it is believed, upon the moisture of the dews. No other animal is to be found there.

Carvilius Pollio, a man of prodigal habits and ingenious in inventing the refinements of luxury, was the first to cut the shell of the tortoise into laminæ, and to veneer beds and cabinets ^[Note] with it.

The integuments of the aquatic animals are many in num-

ber. Some are covered with a hide and hair, as the sea-calf and hippopotamus, for instance; others again, with a hide only, as the dolphin; others again, with a shell, ^[Note] as the turtle; others, with a coat as hard as a stone, like the oyster and other shell-fish; others, with a crust, such as the cray-fish; others, with a crust and spines, like the sea-urchin; others, with scales, as fishes in general; others, with a rough skin, as the squatina, ^[Note] the skin of which is used for polishing wood and ivory; others, with a soft skin, like the muræna; ^[Note] and others with none at all, like the polypus. ^[Note]

Those aquatic animals which are covered with hair are viviparous, such, for instance, as the pristis, the balæna, ^[Note] and the sea-calf. This last brings forth its young on land, and, like the sheep, produces an after-birth. In coupling, they adhere after the manner of the canine species; the female sometimes produces even more than two, and rears her young at the breast. She does not take them down to the sea until the twelfth day, and after that time makes them become used to it by degrees. ^[Note] These animals are killed with the greatest dif-

ficulty, unless the head is cut off at once. They make a noise which sounds like lowing, whence their name of "sea-calf." They are susceptible, however, of training, and with their voice, as well as by gestures, can be taught to salute the public; when called by their name, they answer with a discordant kind of grunt. ^[Note] No animal has a deeper sleep ^[Note] than this; on dry land it creeps along as though on feet, by the aid of what it uses as fins when in the sea. Its skin, even when separated from the body, is said to retain a certain sensitive sympathy with the sea, and at the reflux ^[Note] of the tide, the hair on it always rises upright: in addition to which, it is said that there is in the right fin a certain soporiferous influence, and that, if placed under the head, it induces sleep.

(14.) There are only two animals without hair that are viviparous, the dolphin and the viper. ^[Note]

There are seventy-four ^[Note] species of fishes, exclusive of those

that are covered with crusts; the kinds of which are thirty in number. We shall, on another occasion, ^[Note] speak of each individually; but, for the present, we shall treat only of the nature of the more remarkable ones.

Tunnies are among the most remarkable for their size; we have found one weighing as much as fifteen ^[Note] talents, the breadth of its tail being five cubits and a palm. ^[Note] In some of the rivers, also, there are fish of no less size, such, for instance, as the silurus ^[Note] of the Nile, the isox ^[Note] of the Rhenus, and the

attilus ^[Note] of the Padus, which, naturally of an inactive nature, sometimes grows so fat as to weigh a thousand pounds, and when taken with a hook, attached to a chain, requires a yoke of oxen to draw it ^[Note] on land. An extremely small fish, which is known as the clupea, ^[Note] attaches itself, with a wonderful tenacity, to a certain vein in the throat of the attilus, and destroys it by its bite. The silurus carries devastation with it wherever it goes, attacks every living creature, and often drags beneath the water horses as they swim. It is also remark-

able, that in the Mœnus, ^[Note] a river of Germany, a fish that bears ^[Note] a very strong resemblance to the sea-pig, requires to be drawn out of the water by a yoke of oxen; and, in the Danube, it is taken with large hooks of iron. ^[Note] In the Borysthenes, also, there is said to be a fish of enormous size, the flesh of which has no bones or spines in it, and is remarkable for its sweetness.

In the Ganges, a river of India, there is a fish found which they call the platanista; ^[Note] it has the muzzle and the tail of the dolphin, and measures sixteen cubits in length. Statius Sebosus says, a thing that is marvellous in no small degree, that in the same river there are fishes ^[Note] found, called worms; these have two gills, ^[Note] and are sixty cubits in length; they are

of an azure colour, and have received their name from their peculiar conformation. These fish, he says, are of such enormous strength, that with their teeth they seize hold of the trunks of elephants that come to drink, and so drag them into the water.

The male tunny has no ventral fin; ^[Note] these fish enter the Euxine in large bodies from the main ^[Note] sea, in the spring, and will spawn nowhere else. The young ones, which in autumn accompany the females to the open sea, are known as "cordyla." ^[Note] In the spring they are called "pelamides," ^[Note] from πηλὸς, the Greek for "mud," and after they are a year old, "thynni." When this fish is cut up into pieces, the neck, the belly, and the throat, ^[Note] are the most esteemed parts; but they must be eaten only when they are quite fresh, and even then they cause severe fits of flatulence; the other parts; with the flesh entire, are preserved in salt. Those pieces, which bear a resemblance to an oaken board, have thence received the name of "melandrya." ^[Note] The least esteemed among these parts are those which are the nearest to the tail, because they have no fat upon them; while those parts are considered the most delicate, which lie nearest the neck; ^[Note] in other fishes,

however, the parts about the tail have the most nutriment ^[Note] in them. The pelamides are cut up into small sections, known as "apolecti;" ^[Note] and these again are divided into cubical pieces, which are thence called "cybia." ^[Note]

All kinds of fish grow ^[Note] with remarkable rapidity, and more especially those in the Euxine; the reason ^[Note] of which is the vast number of rivers which discharge their fresh water into it. One fish, the growth of which is quite perceptible, day by day, is known as the amia. ^[Note] This fish, and the pelamides, together with the tunnies, ^[Note] enter the Euxine in shoals, for the purpose of obtaining a sweeter nutriment, each under the command of its own leader; but first of all the scomber ^[Note] ap-

pears, which is of a sulphureous tint when in the water, but when out of it resembles other fish in colour. The salt-water preserves ^[Note] of Spain are filled with these last fish, but the tunnies do not consort with them. ^[Note]

The Euxine, however, is never entered by any animal ^[Note] that is noxious to fish, with the exception of the sea-calf and the small dolphin. On entering, the tunnies range along ^[Note] the shores to the right, and on departing, keep to those on the left; this is supposed to arise from the fact that they have better sight with the right eye, their powers of vision with either being naturally very limited. In the channel of the Thracian Bosporus, by which the Propontis is connected with the Euxine, at the narrowest part of the Straits which separate

Europe from Asia, there is, near Chalcedon, on the Asiatic side, a rock of remarkable Whiteness, the whole of which can be seen from the bottom of the sea at the surface. Alarmed at the sudden appearance of this rock, the tunnies always hasten in great numbers, and with headlong impetuosity, towards the promontory of Byzantium, which stands exactly opposite to it, and from this circumstance has received the name of the Golden Horn. ^[Note] Hence it is, that all the fishing is at Byzantium, to the great loss of Chalcedon, ^[Note] although it is only separated from it by a channel a mile in width. They wait, however, for the blowing of the north wind to leave the Euxine with a favourable tide, and are never taken until they have entered the harbour of Byzantium. These fish do not move about in winter; ^[Note] in whatever place they may happen to be surprised by it, there they pass the winter, till the time of the equinox.

Manifesting a wonderful degree of delight, they will often accompany a vessel in full sail, and may be seen from the poop following it for hours, and a distance of several miles. If a fish-spear even is thrown at them ever so many times, they are not in the slightest degree alarmed at it. Some writers call the tunnies which follow ships in this manner, by the name of "pompili." ^[Note]

Many fishes pass the summer in the Propontis, and do not enter the Euxine; such, for instance, as the sole, ^[Note] while on

the other hand, the turbot ^[Note] enters it. The sepia ^[Note] is not found in this sea, although the lolig ^[Note] is. Among the rock-fish, the sea-thrush ^[Note] and the sea-blackbird are wanting, as also purples, though oysters abound here. All these, however, pass the winter in the Ægean Sea; and of those which enter the Euxine, the only ones that do not ^[Note] return are the trichiæ. ^[Note]—It will be as well to use the Greek names which most of them bear, seeing that to the same species different countries have given different appellations.—These last, however, are the only ones that enter the river Ister, ^[Note] and passing along its subterraneous passages, make their way from it to the Adriatic; ^[Note] and this is

the reason why they are to be seen descending into the Euxine Sea, but never in the act of returning from it. The time for taking tunnies is, from the rising of the Vergiliæ ^[Note] to the setting of Arcturus: ^[Note] throughout the rest of the winter season, they lie concealed at the bottom of deep creeks, unless they are in- duced to come out by the warmth of the weather or the full moon. These fish fatten ^[Note] to such an extraordinary degree as to burst. The longest period of their life ^[Note] is two years.

There is a little animal, ^[Note] in appearance like a scorpion, and of the size of a spider. ^[Note] This creature, by means of its sting, attaches itself below the fin to the tunny and the fish known as the sword-fish ^[Note] and which often exceeds the dolphin in magnitude, and causes it such excruciating pain, that it will often leap on board of a ship even. Fish will also do the same at other times, when in dread of the violence of other fish, and mullets more especially, which are of such extraordinary swiftness, that they will sometimes leap over a ship, if lying cross- wise.

Auguries are also derived from this department of Nature, and fishes afford presages of coming events. While Augustus ^[Note] was walking on the sea-shore, during the time of the Sicilian war, a fish leapt out of the sea, and fell at his feet. The diviners, who were consulted, stated that this was a proof that those would fall beneath the feet of Cæsar who at that moment were in possession of the seas-it was just at this time that Sextus Pompeius had adopted ^[Note] Neptune as his father, so elated was he with his successes by sea.

The females of fishes are larger ^[Note] in size than the males, and in some kinds there are no males ^[Note] at all, as in the erythini ^[Note] and the channi; ^[Note] for all of these that are taken are found to

be full of eggs. Nearly all kinds of fish that are covered with scales are gregarious. They are most easily taken before sunrise; ^[Note] for then more particularly their powers of seeing are defective. They sleep during the night; and when the weather is clear, are able to see just as well then as during the day. It is said, also, that it greatly tends to promote their capture to drag the bottom of the water, and that by so doing more are taken at the second haul ^[Note] than at the first. They are especially fond of the taste of oil, and find nutriment in gentle showers of rain. Indeed, the very reeds, ^[Note] even, although they are produced in swamps, will not grow to maturity without the aid of rain: in addition to this, we find that wherever fishes remain constantly in the same water, if it is not renewed they will die.

All fish have a presentiment of a rigorous winter, but more especially those which are supposed to have a stone ^[Note] in the head, the lupus, ^[Note] for instance, the chromis, ^[Note] the sciæ-

na, ^[Note] and the phagrus. ^[Note] When the winter has been very severe,

many fish are taken in a state of blindness. ^[Note] Hence it is, that during these months they lie concealed in holes, in the same manner as land animals, as we have already ^[Note] mentioned; and more especially the hippurus, ^[Note] and the coracinus, ^[Note] which Archestratus looks upon its head as a delicacy, but thinks so little of the other parts, that they are not, in his opinion, worth carrying away. He was, however, well known to be much too refined in his notions of epicurism.

are never taken during the winter, except only on a few stated days, which are always the same. The same with the muræna ^[Note] also, and the orphus, ^[Note] the conger, ^[Note] the perch, ^[Note] and all

the rock-fish. It is said that, during the winter, the torpedo, ^[Note] the psetta, ^[Note] and the sole, conceal themselves in the earth, or rather, I should say, in excavations made by them at the bottom of the sea.

Other fishes, ^[Note] again, are unable to bear the heat of summer, and lie concealed during the sixty days of the hottest weather of midsummer; such, for instance, as the glaucus, ^[Note] the asellus, ^[Note] of the fish generally known by the ancients as the sea-perch; and that there is reason for thinking that it was similar to the Perca scriba of Linnæus, having black lines running across the body. Most naturalists are

and the dorade. ^[Note] Among the river-fish, the silurus ^[Note] is affected by the rising of the Dog-star, and at other times it is always sent to sleep by thunder. The same is also believed to be the case with the sea-fish called cyprinus. ^[Note] In addition to this, the whole sea is sensible ^[Note] of the rising of this star, a thing which is more especially to be observed in the Bosporus: for there sea-weeds and fish are seen floating on the surface, all of which have been thrown up from the bottom.

One singular propensity of the mullet ^[Note] has afforded a subject for laughter; ^[Note] when it is frightened, it hides its head, and fancies that the whole of its body is concealed. Their salacious propensities ^[Note] render them so unguarded, that in Phoenicia and in the province of Gallia Narbonensis, at the time of coupling,

a male, being taken from out of the preserves, is fastened to a long line, which is passed through his mouth and gills; he is then let go in the sea, after which he is drawn back again by the line, upon which the females will follow him to the very water's edge; and so, on the other hand, the male will follow the female, during the spawning season.

Among the ancients, the acipenser ^[Note] was esteemed the most

noble fish of all; it is the only one that has the scales turned towards the head, and in a contrary direction to that in which it swims. At the present day, however, it is held in no esteem, which I am the more surprised at, it being so very rarely found. Some writers call this fish the elops.

At a later period, they set the highest value on the lupus ^[Note] and the asellus, ^[Note] as we learn from Cornelius Nepos, and the poet, Laberius, the author of the Mimes. The most approved kinds of the lupus are those which have the name of "lanati," or "woolly," in consequence of the extreme whiteness and softness of the flesh. Of the asellus there are two sorts, the callarias, which is the smallest, and the bacchus, ^[Note] which is only taken in deep water, and is hence much preferred to the former. On the other hand, among the varieties of the lupus, those are the most esteemed which are taken in rivers.

At the present day, the first place is given to the scarus, ^[Note] the only fish that is said to ruminate, and to feed on grass and not on other fish. It is mostly found in the Carpathian Sea, and never of its own accord passes Lectum, ^[Note] a promontory of Troas. Optatus Elipertius, the commander of the fleet under the Emperor Claudius, had this fish brought from that locality, and dispersed in various places off the coast between Ostia and the

districts of Campania. During five years, the greatest care was taken that those which were caught should be returned to the sea; but since then they have been always found in great abundance off the shores of Italy, where formerly there were none to be taken. Thus has gluttony introduced these fish, to be a dainty within its reach, and added a new inhabitant to the seas; so that we ought to feel no surprise that foreign birds breed at Rome.

The fish that is next in estimation for the table is the mustela, ^[Note] but that is valued only for its liver. A singular thing to tell of—the lake of Brigantia, ^[Note] in Rhætia, lying in the midst of the Alps, produces them to rival even those of the sea. ^[Note]

Of the remaining fish that are held in any degree of esteem, the mullet ^[Note] is the most highly valued, as well as the most abundant of all; it is of only a moderate size, rarely exceeds two pounds in weight, and will never grow beyond that weight in preserves or fish-ponds. These fish are only to be found in the Northern Ocean, ^[Note] exceeding two pounds in weight, and even there in none but the more westerly parts. As for the other kinds, the various species are numerous; some ^[Note] live upon sea-weed, while others feed on the oyster, slime, and the flesh of other fish. The more distinctive mark is a forked

beard, that projects beneath the lower lip. The lutarius, ^[Note] or mud-mullet, is held in the lowest esteem of all. This last is always accompanied ^[Note] by another fish, known as the sargus, and where the mullet stirs up the mud, the other finds aliment for its own sustenance. The mullet that is found on the coast is not ^[Note] highly esteemed, and the most esteemed of all have a strong flavour ^[Note] of shell-fish. Fenestella is of opinion, that this fish received its name of mullet [mullus] from its resemblance to the colour of the red or mullet-coloured shoes. ^[Note] The mullet spawns three ^[Note] times a year: at all events, the fry makes its appearance that number of times. The masters in gastronomy inform us, that the mullet, while dying, assumes a variety of colours and a succession of shades, and that the hue of the red scales, growing paler and paler, gradually changes, more especially if it is looked at enclosed in glass. ^[Note]

M. Apicius, a man who displayed a remarkable degree of ingenuity in everything relating to luxury, was of opinion, that it was a most excellent plan to let the mullet die in the pickle known as the "garum of the allies" ^[Note]—for we find that even this has found a surname—and he proposed a prize for any one who should invent a new sauce, ^[Note] made from the liver of this fish. I find it much easier to relate this fact, than to state who it was that gained the prize.

Asinius Celer, ^[Note] a man of consular rank, and remarkable for his prodigal expenditure on this fish, bought one at Rome, during the reign of Caius, ^[Note] at the price of eight thousand sesterces. ^[Note] A reflection upon such a fact as this will at once lead us to turn our thoughts to those who, making loud complaints against luxury, have lamented that a single cook cost more money to buy than a horse; while at the present day a cook is only to be obtained for the same sum that a triumph would cost, and a fish is only to be purchased at what was formerly the price for a cook! indeed, there is hardly any living being held in higher esteem than the man who understands how, in the most scientific fashion, to get rid of his master's property.

(18.) Licinius Mucianus relates, that in the Red Sea there was caught a mullet eighty ^[Note] pounds in weight. What a price

would have been paid for it by our epicures, if it had only been found off the shores in the vicinity of our city!

There is this also in the nature of fish, that some are more highly esteemed in one place, and some in another; such, for instance, as the coracinus ^[Note] in Egypt, the zeus, ^[Note] also called the faber, ^[Note] at Gades, the salpa, ^[Note] in the vicinity of Ebusus, ^[Note] which is considered elsewhere an unclean fish, and can nowhere ^[Note] be thoroughly cooked, wherever found, without being first beaten with a stick: in Aquitania, again, the river salmon ^[Note] is preferred to all the fish that swim in the sea.

Some fishes have numerous gills, others again single ^[Note] ones, others double; it is by means of these that they discharge the water that has entered the mouth. A sign of old age ^[Note] is the hardness of the scales, which are not alike in all. There are two lakes ^[Note] of Italy at the foot of the Alps, called Larius and Verbanus, in which there are to be seen every year, at the rising of the Vergiliæ, ^[Note] fish remarkable for the number of their scales, and the exceeding sharpness ^[Note] of them, strongly resembling hob-nails ^[Note] in appearance; these fish, however, are only to be seen during that month, ^[Note] and no longer.

Arcadia produces a wonder in its fish called exocœtus, ^[Note] from the fact that it comes ashore to sleep. In the neighbourhood of the river Clitorius, ^[Note] this fish is said to be gifted with powers of speech, and to have no gills; ^[Note] by some writers it is called the adonis.

Those fish, also, which are known by the name of sea-mice, ^[Note]

as well as the polyp ^[Note] and the murænæ, ^[Note] are in the habit of coming ashore—Besides which, there is in the rivers of India ^[Note] one kind that does this, and then leaps back again into the water—for they are found to pass over into standing waters and streams. Most fishes have an evident instinct, which teaches them where to spawn in safety; as in such places there are no enemies found to devour their young, while at the same time the waves are much less violent. It will be still more a matter of surprise, to find that they thus have an appreciation of cause and effect, and understand the regular recurrence of periods, when we reflect how few persons there are that know that the most favourable time for taking fish is while the sun is passing through the sign of Pisces. ^[Note]

Some sea-fish are flat, such, for instance, as the rhombus, ^[Note] the sole, ^[Note] and the sea-sparrow; ^[Note] which last only differs from

the rhombus in the lateral position of the body. The rhombus lies with the right side upwards, ^[Note] while in the sea-sparrow the left side is uppermost. Some sea-fish, again, are long, as the muræna and the conger.

Hence it is that there is a difference, ^[Note] also, in the fins of fish, which have been given them to serve in place of feet, none having more than four, ^[Note] some two ^[Note] only, and others none. ^[Note] It is in Lake Fucinus ^[Note] only that there is a fish found that has eight fins ^[Note] for swimming. Those fishes which are long and slimy, have only two at most, such, for instance, as eels and congers: others, again, have none, such as the muræna, which is also without gills. ^[Note] All these fish ^[Note] make their way in the sea by an undulatory motion of the body, just as serpents do on land; on dry land, also, they are able to crawl along, and hence those of this nature are more long-lived than the others. Some of the flat-fish, also, have no fins, the pastinacæ, ^[Note] for instance—for these swim broad-wise—those, also, which are known as the "soft" fish, such as the polypi, for their feet ^[Note] serve them in stead of fins.

Eels live eight ^[Note] years; they are able to survive out of water as much as six days, ^[Note] when a north-east wind blows; but when the south wind prevails, not so many. In winter, ^[Note] they cannot live if they are in very shallow water, nor yet if the water is troubled. Hence it is that they are taken more especially about the rising of the Vergiliæ, ^[Note] when the rivers are mostly in a turbid state. These animals seek their food at night; they are the only fish the bodies of which, when dead, do not float ^[Note] upon the surface.

(22.) There is a lake called Benacus, ^[Note] in the territory of Verona, in Italy, through which the river Mincius flows. ^[Note] At the part of it whence this river issues, once a year, and mostly in the month of October, the lake is troubled, evidently by the constellations ^[Note] of autumn, and the eels are heaped together ^[Note] by the waves, and rolled on by them in such astonishing multitudes, that single masses of them, containing more than a thousand in number, are often taken in the chambers ^[Note] which are formed in the bed of the river for that purpose.

The muræna brings forth every month, while all the other

fishes spawn only at stated periods: the eggs of this fish increase with the greatest rapidity. ^[Note] It is a vulgar ^[Note] belief that the muræna comes on shore, and is there impregnated by intercourse with serpents. Aristotle ^[Note] calls the male, which impregnates the female, by the name of "zmyrus;" and says that there is a difference between them, the muræna being spotted ^[Note] and weakly, while the zmyrus is all of one colour and hardy, and has teeth which project beyond the mouth. In northern Gaul all the murænæ have on the right jaw seven spots, ^[Note] which bear a resemblance to the constellation of the Septentriones, ^[Note] and are of a gold colour, shining as long as the animal is alive, but disappearing as soon as it is dead. Vedius Pollio, ^[Note] a Roman of equestrian rank, and one of the friends of the late Emperor Augustus, found a method of exercising his cruelty by means of this animal, for he caused such slaves as had been condemned by him, to be thrown into preserves filled with murænæ; not that the land

animals would not have fully sufficed for this purpose, but because he could not see a man so aptly torn to pieces all at once by any other kind of animal. It is said that these fish are driven to madness by the taste of vinegar. Their skin is exceedingly thin; while that of the eel, on the other hand, is much thicker. Verrius informs us that formerly the children of the Roman citizens, while wearing the prætexta, ^[Note] were flogged with eel-skins, and that, for this reason, no pecuniary penalty ^[Note] could by law be inflicted upon them.

There is another kind of flat fish, which, instead of bones, has cartilage, such, for instance, as the raia, ^[Note] the pastinaca, ^[Note] the squatina, ^[Note] the torpedo, ^[Note] and those which, under their respective Greek names, are known as the ox, ^[Note] the lamia, ^[Note] the eagle, ^[Note] and

the frog. ^[Note] In this number, also, the squali ^[Note] ought to be included, although they are not flat fish. Aristotle was the first to call these fish by the one generic name of σελάχη, ^[Note] which he has given them: we, however, have no mode of distinguishing them, unless, indeed, we choose to call them the "cartilaginous" fishes. All these fish are carnivorous, ^[Note] and feed lying on their backs, just as dolphins do, as already ^[Note] noticed; while the other fishes, ^[Note] too, are oviparous, this one kind, with the exception of that known as the sea-frog, is viviparous, like the cetacea. ^[Note]

There is a very small fish ^[Note] that is in the habit of living among the rocks, and is known as the echeneis. ^[Note] It is believed that when this has attached itself to the keel of a ship its pro-

gress is impeded, and that it is from this circumstance that it takes its name. ^[Note] For this reason, also, it has a disgraceful repute, as being employed in love philtres, ^[Note] and for the purpose of retarding judgments and legal proceedings—evil properties, which are only compensated by a single merit that it possesses—it is good for staying fluxes of the womb in pregnant women, and preserves the fœtus up to birth: it is never used, however, for food. ^[Note] Aristotle ^[Note] is of opinion that this fish has feet, so strong is the resemblance, by reason of the form and position of the fins.

Mucianus speaks of a murex ^[Note] of larger size than the purple, with a head that is neither rough nor round; and the shell of which is single, and falls in folds on either side. ^[Note] He tells us, also, that some of these creatures once attached themselves to a ship freighted with children ^[Note] of noble birth, who were being sent by Periander for the purpose of being castrated, and that they stopped its course in full sail; and he further

says, that the shell-fish which did this service are duly honoured in the temple of Venus, ^[Note] at Cnidos. Trebius Niger says that this fish is a foot in length, and that it can retard the course of vessels, five fingers in thickness; besides which, it has another peculiar property-when preserved in salt, and applied, it is able to draw up gold which has fallen into a well, however deep it may happen to be. ^[Note]

The mæna changes ^[Note] its white colour, and in summer becomes swarthy. The phycis ^[Note] also changes its colour, and

while at other times it is white, in spring it is parti-coloured. This last is the only fish that builds itself a nest; it makes it of sea-weed, and there deposits its eggs.

The sea-swallow, ^[Note] being able to fly, bears a strong resemblance to the bird of that name; the sea-kite ^[Note] too, flies as well.

(27.) There is a fish that comes up to the surface of the sea, known, from the following circumstance, as the lantern-fish: ^[Note] thrusting from its mouth a tongue that shines like fire, it emits a most brilliant light on calm nights. Another fish, which, from its horns, has received its name, ^[Note] raises them nearly a

foot and a half above the surface of the water. The seadragon, ^[Note] again, if caught and thrown on the sand, works out a hole for itself with its muzzle, with the most wonderful celerity.

The varieties of fish which we shall now mention are those which have no blood: they are of three kinds ^[Note]—first, those which are known as "soft;" next, those which have thin crusts; and, lastly, those which are enclosed in hard shells. The soft fish are the loligo, ^[Note] the sæpia, ^[Note] the polypus, ^[Note] and others of a similar nature. These last have the head between the feet and the belly, and have, all of them, eight feet: in the sæpia and the loligo two of these feet are very long ^[Note] and rough, and by means of these they lift the food to their mouth, and attach themselves to places in the sea, as though with an anchor; the others act as so many arms, by means of which they seize their prey. ^[Note]

The loligo is also able to dart above the surface of the water, and the scallop does the same, just like an arrow as it were. In the sæpia, ^[Note] the male is parti-coloured, blacker than the female, and more courageous. If the female is struck with a fish-spear, the male comes to her aid; but the female, the instant the male is struck, takes to flight. Both of them, as soon as ever they find themselves in danger of being caught, discharge ^[Note] a kind of ink, which with them is in place of blood, ^[Note] and thus darkening the water, take to flight.

There are numerous kinds of polypi. The land ^[Note] polypus is larger than that of the sea; they all of them use their arms ^[Note] as feet and hands; and in coupling they employ the tail, which is forked ^[Note] and sharp. The polypus has a sort of passage in the back, ^[Note] by which it lets in and discharges the water, and which

it shifts from side to side, sometimes carrying it on the right, and sometimes on the left. It swims obliquely, ^[Note] with the head on one side, which is of surprising hardness while the animal is alive, being puffed out with air. ^[Note] In addition to this, they have cavities ^[Note] dispersed throughout the claws, by means of which, through suction, they can adhere to objects; which they hold, with the head upwards, so tightly, that they cannot be torn away. They cannot attach themselves, however, to the bottom of the sea, and their retentive powers are weaker in the larger ones. These are the only ^[Note] soft fish that come on dry land, and then only where the surface is rugged: a smooth surface they will not come near. They feed upon the flesh of shell-fish, the shells of which they can easily break in the embrace of their arms: hence it is that their retreat may be easily detected by the pieces of shell which lie before it. Although, in other respects, this is looked upon as a remarkably stupid kind of animal, so much so, that it will swim towards the hand of a man, to a certain extent in its own domestic matters it manifests considerable intelligence. It carries its prey to its home, and after eating all the flesh, throws out the debris, and then pursues such small fish as may chance to swim towards them. It also changes its colour ^[Note] according to the aspect of the place where it is, and more especially when it is alarmed. The notion is entirely unfounded that it gnaws ^[Note] its own arms; for it is from the congers that this mischance befalls it; but it is no other

than true that its arms shoot forth again, like the tail in the colotus ^[Note] and the lizard. ^[Note]

Among the most remarkable curiosities is the animal which has the name ^[Note] of nautilus, or, as some people call it, the pompilos. Lying with the head upwards, it rises to the surface of the water, raising itself little by little, while, by means of a certain conduit in its body, it discharges all the water, and this being got rid of like so much bilge-water as it were, it finds no difficulty in sailing along. Then, extending backwards its two front arms, it stretches out between them a membrane ^[Note] of marvellous thinness, which acts as a sail spread out to the wind, while with the rest of its arms it paddles along below, steering itself with its tail in the middle, which acts as a rudder. Thus does it make its way along the deep, mimicking the appearance of a light Liburnian ^[Note] bark; while, if anything chances to cause it alarm, in an instant it draws in the water, and sinks to the bottom. ^[Note]

Belonging to the genus of polypi is the animal known as the

ozæna, ^[Note] being so called from the peculiarly strong smell exhaled by the head; ^[Note] in consequence of which, the mu- rænæ ^[Note] pursue it with the greatest eagerness. The polypi keep themselves concealed for two months in the year; they do not live beyond two ^[Note] years, and always die of consumption, the females even sooner, ^[Note] and mostly after bringing forth. I must not omit here the observations which L. Lucullus, the proconsul of Bætica, made with reference to the polypus, and which Trebius Niger, one of his suite, has published. He says that it is remarkably fond of shell-fish, and that these, the moment that they feel themselves touched by it, close their valves, and cut off the feelers of the polypus, thus making a meal at the expense of the plunderer. Shellfish are destitute of sight, and, indeed, all other sensations but those which warn them of hunger and the approach of danger. Hence it is, that the polypus lies in ambush ^[Note] till the fish opens its shell, immediately upon which, it places within it a small pebble, taking care, at the same time, to keep it from touching the body of the animal, lest, by making some movement, it should chance to eject it. Having made itself thus secure, it attacks its prey, and draws out the flesh, while the other tries to contract itself, but all in vain, in consequence of the separation of the shell, thus effected by the insertion of the wedge. So great is the instinctive shrewdness in animals that are otherwise quite remarkable for their lumpish stupidity.

In addition to the above, the same author states, that there is not an animal in existence, that is more dangerous for its powers of destroying a human being ^[Note] when in the water.

Embracing his body, it counteracts his struggles, and draws him under with its feelers and its numerous suckers, when, as often is the case, it happens to make an attack upon a shipwrecked mariner or a child. If, however, the animal is turned over, it loses all its power; for when it is thrown upon the back, the arms open of themselves.

The other particulars, which the same author has given, appear still more closely to border upon the marvellous. At Carteia, ^[Note] in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of coming from the sea to the ^[Note] pickling-tubs that were left open, and devouring the fish laid in salt there—for it is quite astonishing how eagerly all sea-animals follow even the very smell of salted condiments, so much so, that it is for this reason, that the fishermen take care to rub the inside of the wicker fish-kipes ^[Note] with them.—At last, by its repeated thefts and immoderate depredations, it drew down upon itself the wrath of the keepers of the works. Palisades were placed before them, but these the polypus managed to get over by the aid of a tree, ^[Note] and it was only caught at last by calling in the assistance of trained dogs, which surrounded it at night, as it was returning to its prey; upon which, the keepers, awakened by the noise, were struck with alarm at the novelty of the sight presented. First of all, the size of the polypus was enormous beyond all conception; and then it was covered all over

with dried brine, and exhaled a most dreadful stench. Who could have expected to find a polypus there, or could have recognized it as such under these circumstances? They really thought that they were joining battle with some monster, for at one instant, it would drive off the dogs by its horrible fumes, ^[Note] and lash at them with the extremities of its feelers; while at another, it would strike them with its stronger arms, giving blows with so many clubs, as it were; and it was only with the greatest difficulty that it could be dispatched with the aid of a considerable number of three-pronged fish-spears. The head of this animal was shewn to Lucullus; it was in size as large as a cask of fifteen amphoræ, and had a beard, ^[Note] to use the expressions of Trebius himself, which could hardly be encircled with both arms, full of knots, like those upon a club, and thirty feet in length; the suckers or calicules, ^[Note] as large as an urn, resembled a basin in shape, while the teeth again were of a corresponding largeness: its remains, which were carefully preserved as a curiosity, weighed seven hundred pounds. The same author also informs us, that specimens of the sæpia and the loligo have been thrown up on the same shores of a size fully as large: in our own seas ^[Note] the loligo is sometimes found five cubits in length, and the sæpia, two. These animals do not live beyond two years.

Mucianus also relates that he had seen, in the Propontis, another curious resemblance to a ship in full sail. ^[Note] There is

a shell-fish, he says, with a keel, just like that of the vessel which we know by the name of acatium, ^[Note] with the poop curving inwards, and a prow with the beak ^[Note] attached. In this shell-fish there lies concealed also an animal known as the nauplius, which bears a strong resemblance to the sæpia, and only adopts the shell-fish as the companion of its pastimes. There are two modes, he says, which it adopts in sailing; when the sea is calm, the voyager hangs down its arms, ^[Note] and strikes the water with a pair of oars as it were; but if, on the other hand, the wind invites, it extends them, employing them by way of a helm, and turning the mouth of the shell to the wind. The pleasure experienced by the shell-fish is that of carrying the other, while the amusement of the nauplius consists in steering; and thus, at the same moment, is an instinctive joy felt by these two creatures, devoid as they are of all sense, unless, indeed, a natural antipathy to man—for it is a well-known fact, that to see them thus sailing along, is a bad omen, and that it is portentous of misfortune to those who witness it.

The cray-fish, ^[Note] which belongs to that class of animals which is destitute of blood, is protected by a brittle crust. This creature keeps itself concealed for five months, and the same is the case with crabs, which disappear for the same period. At the beginning of spring, however, they both ^[Note] of them, after the

manner of snakes, throw off old age, and renew their coverings. While other animals swim on the water, cray-fish float with a kind of action like creeping. They move onwards, if there is nothing to alarm ^[Note] them, in a straight line, extending on each side their horns, which are rounded at the point by a ball peculiar to them; but, on the other hand, the moment they are alarmed, they straighten these horns, and proceed with a sidelong motion. They also use ^[Note] these horns when fighting with each other. The cray-fish is the only animal that has the flesh in a pulpy state, and not firm and solid, unless it is cooked alive in boiling water.

(31.) The cray-fish frequents rocky places, the crab ^[Note] spots which present a soft surface. In winter they both choose such parts of the shore as are exposed to the heat of the sun, and in summer they withdraw to the shady recesses of deep inlets of the sea. All fish of this kind suffer from the cold of winter, but become fat during autumn and spring, and more particularly during the full moon; for the warmth of that luminary, as it shines in the night, renders ^[Note] the temperature of the weather more moderate.

There are various kinds of crabs, ^[Note] known as carabi, ^[Note] astaci, ^[Note]

maiæ, ^[Note] paguri, ^[Note] heracleotici, ^[Note] lions, ^[Note] and others of less note. The carabus differs ^[Note] from other crabs, in having a tail: in Phoenicia they are called hippoi, ^[Note] or horses, being of such extraordinary swiftness, that it is impossible to overtake them. Crabs are long-lived, and have eight feet, all of which are bent obliquely. In the female ^[Note] the first foot is

double, in the male single; besides which, the animal has two claws with indented pincers. The upper part only of these fore-feet is moveable, the lower being immoveable: the right claw is the largest in them all. ^[Note] Sometimes they assemble together in large bodies; ^[Note] but as they are unable to cross the mouth of the Euxine, they turn back again and go round by land, and the road by which they travel is to be seen all beaten down with their foot-marks.

The smallest crab of any is that known as the pinnotheres, ^[Note] and hence it is peculiarly exposed to danger; its shrewdness, however, is evinced by its concealing itself in the shell of the oyster; and as it grows larger, it removes to those of a larger size.

Crabs, when alarmed, go backwards as swiftly as when moving forwards. They fight with one another like rams, butting at each other with their horns. They have ^[Note] a mode of curing themselves of the bites of serpents. It is said, ^[Note] that

while the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, the dead bodies of the crabs, which are lying thrown up on the shore, are transformed into serpents.

To the same class ^[Note] also belongs the sea-urchin, ^[Note] which has spines in place of feet ^[Note] its mode of moving along is to roll like a ball, hence it is that these animals are often found with their prickles rubbed off. Those among them which have the longest spines of all, are known by the name of echinometræ, ^[Note] while at the same time their body is the very smallest. They are not all of them of the same glassy colour; in the vicinity of Torone ^[Note] they are white, ^[Note] with very short spines. The eggs ^[Note] of all of them are bitter, and are five in number; the mouth is situate in the middle of the body, and faces the earth. ^[Note] It is said ^[Note] that these creatures foreknow the approach of a storm at sea, and that they take up little stones with which they cover ^[Note] themselves, and so provide a sort of ballast against their volubility, for they are very unwilling by rolling along to wear away their prickles. As soon as seafaring persons observe this, they at once moor their ship with several anchors.

(32.) To the same genus ^[Note] also belong both land and water ^[Note] snails, which thrust the body forth from their abode, and extend or contract two horns, as it were. They are without

eyes, ^[Note] and have, therefore, to feel their way, by means of these horns.

(33.) Sea-scallops ^[Note] are considered to belong to the same class, which also conceal themselves during severe frosts and great heats; the onyches, ^[Note] too, which shine in the dark like fire, and in the mouth even while being eaten.

Let us now pass on to the murex ^[Note] and various kinds of shellfish, which have a stronger shell, and in which Nature, in her sportive mood, has displayed a great variety-so many are the various hues of their tints, so numerous are their shapes, flat, ^[Note] concave, ^[Note] long, ^[Note] crescent-shaped, ^[Note] rounded into a globe, cut ^[Note] through into a semi-globe, arched in the back, smooth, rough, indented, streaked, the upper part spirally wreathed, the edge projecting in a sharp point, the edge wreathed outwards, ^[Note] or else folding inwards. ^[Note] And then, too, there are the various dis-

tinctions ^[Note] of rayed shells, long-haired ^[Note] shells, wavy-haired shells, channelled shells, pectinated shells, imbricated shells, reticulated shells, shells with lines oblique or rectilinear, thick-set shells, expanded shells, tortuous shells, shells the valves or which are united by one small knot, shells which are held together all along one side, shells which are open as if in the very act of applauding, ^[Note] and shells which wind, ^[Note] resembling a conch. The fish of this class, known as the shells of Venus, ^[Note] are able to navigate the surface of the deep, and, presenting to the wind their concave side, catch the breeze, and sail along on the surface of the sea. Scallops are also able to leap ^[Note] and fly above the surface of the water, and they sometimes employ their shell by way of a bark.

But why mention such trifles as these, when I am sensible that no greater inroads have been made upon our morals, and no more rapid advances have been made by luxury, than those effected through the medium of shell-fish? Of all the elements that exist, the sea is the one that costs the dearest to the belly; seeing that it provides so many kinds of meats,

so many dishes, so many exquisite flavours derived from fish, all of which are valued in proportion to the danger undergone by those who have caught them.

(35.) But still, how insignificant is all this when we come to think of our purple, our azure, ^[Note] and our pearls; it was not enough, forsooth, for the spoils of the sea to be thrust down the gullet—But they must be employed as well to adorn the hands, the ears, the head, the whole body, in fact, and that of the men pretty nearly as much as the women. What has the sea to do with our clothes? ^[Note] What is there in com- mon between waves and billows and a sheep's fleece? This one element ought not to receive us, according to ordinary notions, except in a state of nakedness. Let there be ever so strong an alliance between it and the belly, on the score of gluttony, still, what can it possibly have to do with the back? It is not enough, forsooth, that we are fed upon what is acquired by perils, but we must be clothed, too, in a similar way; so true it is, that for all the wants of the body, that which is sought at the expense of human life, is sure to please us the most.

The first rank then, and the very highest position among all valuables, belongs to the pearl. It is the Indian Ocean that principally sends them to us: and thus have they, amid those monsters so frightful and so huge which we have already described, ^[Note] to cross so many seas, and to traverse such lengthened tracts of land, scorched by the ardent rays of a burning sun: and then, too, by the Indians themselves they have to be sought in certain islands, and those but very few in number. The most productive of pearls is the island of Taprobane, and that of Stoidis, as already mentioned ^[Note] in the description of the

world; Perimula, ^[Note] also, a promontory of India. But those are most highly valued which are found in the vicinity of Arabia, ^[Note] in the Persian Gulf, which forms a part of the Red Sea.

The origin ^[Note] and production of the shell-fish is not very different from that of the shell of the oyster. When the genial season of the year ^[Note] exercises its influence on the animal, it is said that, yawning, as it were, it opens its shell, and so receives a kind of dew, by means of which it becomes impregnated; and that at length it gives birth, after many struggles, to the burden of its shell, in the shape of pearls, which vary according to the quality of the dew. If this has been in a perfectly pure state when it flowed into the shell, then the pearl produced is white and brilliant, but if it was turbid, then the pearl is of a clouded colour also; if the sky should happen to have been lowering when it was generated, the pearl will be of a pallid colour; from all which it is quite evident that the quality of the pearl depends much more upon a calm state of the heavens than of the sea, and hence it is that it contracts a cloudy hue, or a limpid appearance, according to the degree of serenity of the sky in the morning.

If, again, the fish is satiated in a reasonable time, then the pearl produced increases rapidly in size. If it should happen to lighten at the time, the animal shuts its shell, and the pearl is diminished in size in proportion to the fast that the animal has to endure: but if, in addition to this, it should thun-

der ^[Note] as well, then it becomes alarmed, and closing the shell in an instant, produces what is known as a physema, ^[Note] or pearl-bubble, filled with air, and bearing a resemblance to a pearl, but in appearance only, as it is quite empty, and devoid of body; these bubbles are formed by the abortion of the shellfish. Those which are produced in a perfectly healthy state consist of numerous layers, so that they may be looked upon, not inappropriately, as similar in conformation to the callosities on the body of an animal; and they should therefore be cleaned by experienced hands. It is wonderful, however, that they should be influenced thus pleasurably by the state of the heavens, seeing that by the action of the sun the pearls are turned of a red colour, and lose all their whiteness, just like the human body. Hence it is that those which keep their whiteness the best are the pelagie, or main-sea pearls, which lie at too great a depth to be reached by the sun's rays; and yet these even turn yellow with age, grow dull and wrinkled, and it is only in their youth that they possess that brilliancy which is so highly esteemed in them. When old, too, the coat grows thick, and they adhere to the shell, ^[Note] from which they can only be separated with the assistance of a file. ^[Note] Those pearls which have one surface flat and the other spherical, opposite to the plane side, are for that reason called tympania, ^[Note] or tambour-pearls. I have seen pearls still adhering to the shell; for which reason the shells were used as boxes for unguents. In addition to these facts, we may remark that the pearl is soft ^[Note] in the water, but that it grows hard the instant it is taken out.

The fish, as soon as ever it perceives the hand, ^[Note] shuts its shell and covers up its treasures, being well aware that it is for them that it is sought; and if it happens to catch the hand, ^[Note] it cuts it off with the sharp edge of the shell. And no punishment is there that could be more justly inflicted. There are other penalties added as well, seeing that the greater part of these pearls are only to be found among rocks and crags, while on the other hand, those which lie out in the main sea are generally accompanied by sea-dogs. ^[Note] And yet, for all this, the women will not banish these gems from their ears! Some writers say, ^[Note] that these animals live in communities, just like swarms of bees, each of them being governed by one remarkable for its size and its venerable old age; ^[Note] while at the same time it is possessed of marvellous skill in taking all due pre-

cautions against danger; the divers, they say, take especial care to find these, and when once they are taken, the others stray to and fro, and are easily caught in theirnets. We learn also that as soon as they are taken they are placed under a thick layer of salt in earthen-ware vessels; as the flesh is gradually consumed, certain knots, ^[Note] which form the pearls, are disengaged ^[Note] from their bodies, and fall to the bottom of the vessel.

There is no doubt that pearls wear with use, and will change their colour, if neglected. All their merit consists in their whiteness, large size, roundness, polish, and weight; qualities which are not easily to be found united in the same; so much so, indeed, that no two pearls are ever found perfectly alike; and it was from this circumstance, no doubt, that our Roman luxury first gave them the name of "unio," ^[Note] or the unique gem: for a similar name is not given them by the Greeks; nor, indeed, among the barbarians by whom they are found are they called anything else but "margaritæ." ^[Note] Even in the very whiteness of the pearl there is a great difference to be observed. Those are of a much clearer water that are found in the Red Sea, ^[Note] while the Indian pearl resembles in tint the scales ^[Note] of the mirror-stone, but exceeds all the others in size. The colour that is most highly prized of all, is that of those

which are thence called alum-coloured ^[Note] pearls. Long pearls also have their peculiar value; those are called "elenchi," which are of a long tapering shape, resembling our alabaster ^[Note] boxes in form, and ending in a full bulb. ^[Note] Our ladies quite glory in having these suspended from their fingers, or two or three of them dangling from their ears. For the purpose of ministering to these luxurious tastes, there are various names and wearisome refinements which have been devised by profuseness and prodigality; for after inventing these ear-rings, they have given them the name of "crotalia," ^[Note] or castanet pendants, as though quite delighted even with the rattling of the pearls as they knock against each other; and now, at the present day, the poorer classes are even affecting them, as people are in the habit of saying, that "a pearl worn by a woman in public, is as good as a lictor ^[Note] walking before her." Nay, even more than this, they put them on their feet, and that, not only on the laces of their sandals, but all over the

shoes; ^[Note] it is not enough to wear pearls, but they must tread upon them, and walk with them under foot as well.

Pearls used formerly to be found in our sea, but more frequently about the Thracian Bosporus; ^[Note] they were of a red colour, and small, ^[Note] and enclosed in a shell-fish known by the name of "myes." In Acarnania there is a shell-fish called "pina," ^[Note] which produces pearls; and from this it is quite evident that it is not one kind of fish only that produces them. Juba states also, that on the shores of Arabia there is a shellfish which resembles a notched comb, and covered all over with hair ^[Note] like a sea-urchin, and that the pearl lies imbedded in its flesh, in appearance bearing a strong resemblance to a hailstone. ^[Note] No such shell-fish, however, as these are ever brought to Rome. Nor yet are anypearls of value found in Acarnania, being shapeless, rough, and of a marble hue; those are better which are found in the vicinity of Actium; but still they are small, which is the case also with those found on the coast of Mauritania. Alexander Polyhistor and Sudines ^[Note] are of opinion that as they grow old their tints gradually fade.

It is quite clear that the interior of the pearl is solid, as no fall is able to break it. Pearls are not always found in the middle of the body of the animal, but sometimes in one place,

and sometimes another. Indeed, I have seen some which lay at the edge of the shell, just as though in the very act of coming forth, and in some fishes as many as four or five. Up to the present time, very few have been found which exceeded half an ounce in weight, by more than one scruple. It is a well-ascertained fact, that in Britannia ^[Note] pearls are found, though small, and of a bad colour; for the deified Julius Cæsar ^[Note] wished it to be distinctly understood, ^[Note] that the breast-plate which he dedicated to Venus Genetrix, in her temple, was made of British pearls.

I once saw Lollia Paulina, ^[Note] the wife of the Emperor Caius ^[Note] —it was not at any public festival, or any solemn ceremonial, but only at an ordinary wedding entertainment ^[Note]—covered

with emeralds and pearls, which shone in alternate layers upon her head, in her hair, in her wreaths, in her ears, upon her neck, in her bracelets, and on her fingers, and the value of which amounted in all to forty millions ^[Note] of sesterces; indeed ^[Note] she was prepared at once to prove the fact, by showing the receipts and acquittances. Nor were these any presents made by a prodigal potentate, but treasures which had descended to her from her grandfather, and obtained by the spoliation of the provinces. Such are the fruits of plunder and extortion! It was for this reason that M. Lollius ^[Note] was held so infamous all over the East for the presents which he extorted from the kings; the result of which was, that he was denied the friendship of Caius Cæsar, and took poison; ^[Note] and all this was done, I say, that his grand-daughter might be seen, by the glare of lamps, covered all over with jewels to the amount of forty millions of sesterces! Now let a person only picture to himself, on the one hand, what was the value of the habits worn by Curius or Fabricius in their triumphs, let him picture to himself the objects displayed to the public on their triumphal litters, ^[Note] and then, on the other hand, let him think upon this Lollia, this one bit ^[Note] of a woman, the head of an empire, taking her place at table, thus attired; would he not much rather that the conquerors had been torn from their very chariots, than that they had conquered for such a result as this?

Nor, indeed, are these the most supreme evidences of luxury. There were formerly two pearls, the largest that had been ever seen in the whole world: Cleopatra, the last of the queens of Egypt, was in possession of them both, they having come to her by descent from the kings of the East. When Antony had been sated by her, day after day, with the most exquisite banquets, this queenly courtesan, inflated with vanity and disdainful arrogance, affected to treat all this sumptuousness and all these vast preparations with the greatest contempt; upon which Antony enquired what there was that could possibly be added to such extraordinary magnificence. To this she made answer, that on a single entertainment she would expend ten millions ^[Note] of sesterces. Antony was extremely desirous to learn how that could be done, but looked upon it as a thing quite impossible; and a wager was the result. On the following day, upon which the matter was to be decided, in order that she might not lose the wager, she had an entertainment set before Antony, magnificent in every respect, though no better than his usual repast. Upon this, Antony joked her, and enquired what was the amount expended upon it; to which she made answer that the banquet which he then beheld was only a trifling appendage ^[Note] to the real banquet, and that she alone ^[Note] would consume at the meal to the ascertained value of that amount, she herself would swallow the ten millions of sesterces; and so ordered the second course to be served. In obedience to her instructions, the servants placed before her a single vessel, which was filled with vinegar, a liquid, the sharpness and strength of which is able ^[Note] to dis-

solve pearls. At this moment she was wearing in her ears those choicest and most rare and unique productions of Nature; and while Antony was waiting to see what she was going to do, taking one of them from out of her ear, she threw it into the vinegar, and directly it was melted, swallowed it. Lucius Plancus, ^[Note] who had been named umpire in the wager, placed his hand upon the other at the very instant that she was making preparations to dissolve it in a similar manner, and declared that Antony had lost—an omen which, ^[Note] in the result, was fully confirmed. The fame of the second pearl is equal to that which attends its fellow. After the queen, who had thus come off victorious on so important a question, had been seized, it was cut asunder, in order that this, the other half of the entertainment, might serve as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome.

Antony and Cleopatra, however, will not bear away the palm of prodigality in this respect, and will be stripped of even this boast in the annals of luxury. For before their time, Clodius, the son of the tragic actor Æsopus, ^[Note] had done the

same at Rome; having been left by his father heir to his ample wealth and possessions. Let not Antony then be too proud, for all his trumvirate, since he can hardly stand in comparison with an actor; one, too, who had no wager to induce him—a thing which adds to the regal munificence of the act —But was merely desirous of trying, by way of glorification to his palate, what was the taste of pearls. As he found it to be wonderfully pleasing, that he might not be the only one to know it, he had a pearl set before each of his guests for him to swallow. After the surrender of Alexandria, pearls came into common and, indeed, universal use at Rome; but they first began to be used about the time of Sylla, though but of small size and of little value, Fenestella says—in this, however, it is quite evident that he is mistaken, for Ælius Stilo tells us, that it was in the time of the Jugurthine war, that the name of "unio" was first given to pearls of remarkable size.

And yet pearls may be looked upon as pretty nearly a possession of everlasting duration—they descend from a man to his heir, and they are alienated from one to another just like any landed estate. But the colours that are extracted from the murex ^[Note] and the purple fade from hour to hour; and yet luxury, which has similarly acted as a mother to them, has set upon them prices almost equal to those of pearls.

(36.) Purples live mostly seven ^[Note] years. Like the murex, they keep themselves in concealment for thirty days, about the time of the rising of the Dog-star; in the spring season they unite in large bodies, and by rubbing against each other, produce a viscous spittle, from which a kind of wax is formed. The murex does the same; but the purple ^[Note] has that exquisite juice which is so greatly sought after for the purpose of dyeing cloth, situate in the middle of the throat. This secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint of a rose somewhat inclining to black. The rest of the body is entirely destitute of this juice. It is a great point to take the fish alive; for when it dies, it spits out this juice. From the larger ones it is extracted after taking off the shell; but the small fish are crushed alive, together with the shells, upon which they eject this secretion.

In Asia the best purple is that of Tyre, in Africa that of Meninx ^[Note] and the parts of Gætulia that border on the Ocean, and in Europe that of Laconia. It is for this colour that the fasces and the axes ^[Note] of Rome make way in the crowd; it is this that asserts the majesty of childhood; ^[Note] it is this that distinguishes the senator ^[Note] from the man of equestrian rank; by persons arrayed in this colour are prayers ^[Note] ad-

dressed to propitiate the gods; on every garment ^[Note] it sheds a lustre, and in the triumphal vestment ^[Note] it is to be seen mingled with gold. Let us be prepared then to excuse this frantic passion for purple, even though at the same time we are compelled to enquire, why it is that such a high value has been set upon the produce of this shell-fish, seeing that while in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour itself is harsh, of a greenish hue, and strongly resembling that of the sea when in a tempestuous state?

The tongue of the purple is a finger ^[Note] in length, and by means of this it finds subsistence, by piercing other shellfish, ^[Note] so hard is the point of it. They die in fresh water, and in places where rivers discharge themselves into the sea; otherwise, when taken, they will live as long as fifty days on their saliva. All shell-fish grow very fast, and purples more especially; they come to their full size at the end of a year.

Were I at this point to pass on to other subjects, luxury, no doubt would think itself defrauded of its due, and so accuse me of negligence; I must therefore make my way into the very workshops even, so that, just as among articles of food the various kinds and qualities of corn are known, all those who place the enjoyment of life in these luxuries, may have a still better acquaintance with the objects for which they live. ^[Note]

There are two kinds of fish that produce the purple colour; the elements in both are the same, the combinations only are different; the smaller fish is that which is called the "buccinum," from its resemblance to the conch by which the sound of the buccinus or trumpet is produced, and to this circumstance it owes its name: the opening in it is round, with an incision in the margin. ^[Note] The other fish is known as the "purpura," or purple, and has a grooved and projecting muzzle, which being tubulated on one side in the interior, forms a passage for the tongue; ^[Note] besides which, the shell is studded with points up to the very apex, which are mostly seven in number, and disposed ^[Note] in a circle; these are not found on the buccinum, though both of them have as many spirals as they are years old. The buccinum attaches itself only to crags, and is gathered about rocky places.

(37.) Purples also have another name, that of "pelagiæ ^[Note] there are numerous kinds of them, which differ only in their element and place of abode. There is the mud ^[Note] purple, which is nurtured upon putrid mud; and the sea-weed ^[Note] purple, which feeds on sea-weed; both of which are held in the very lowest esteem. A better kind is the reef-purple, ^[Note] which is collected on the reefs or out at sea; still, however, the colour extracted from this is too light and thin. Then, again, there is the variety known as the pebble-purple, ^[Note] so called from the pebbles of the sea, and wonderfully well adapted for dyeing; and, better

than any of them, that known by the name of "dialutensis," ^[Note] because of the various natures of the soil on which it feeds. Purples are taken with a kind of osier kipe ^[Note] of small size, and with large meshes; these are cast into the sea, and in them cockles are put as a bait, that close the shell in an instant, and snap at an object, just as we see mussels do. Though half dead, these animals, as soon as ever they are returned to the sea, come to life again, and open their shells with avidity; upon which the purples seek them, and commence the attack, by protruding their tongues. The cockles, on the other hand, the moment they feel themselves pricked, shut their shells, and hold fast the object that has wounded them: in this way, victims to their greediness, they are drawn up to the surface hanging by the tongue.

The most favourable season for taking these fish is after the rising of the Dog-star, or else before spring; for when they have once discharged ^[Note] their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers' workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein is extracted, which we have ^[Note] previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius ^[Note] about to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no

more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin, ^[Note] and every hundred amphoræ ^[Note] ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquified state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour. The juice of the buccinum is considered very inferior if employed by itself, as it is found to discharge its colour; but when used in conjunction with that of the pelagiæ, it blends ^[Note] with it very well, gives a bright lustre to its colour, which is otherwise too dark, and imparts the shining crimson hue of the kermes-Berry, a tint that is particularly valued. By the admixture of their respective virtues these colours are thus heightened or rendered sombre by the aid of one another. The proper proportions for mixing are, for fifty pounds of wool, two hundred pounds of juice of the buccinum and one hundred and eleven of juice of the pelagiæ.

From this combination is produced the admirable tint known as amethyst colour. ^[Note] To produce the Tyrian hue the wool is soaked in the juice of the pelagiæ while the mixture is in an uncooked and raw state; after which its tint is changed by being dipped in the juice of the buccinum. It is considered of the best quality when it has exactly the colour of clotted blood, and is of a blackish hue to the sight, but of a shining appearance when held up to the light; hence it is that we find Homer speaking of "purple blood." ^[Note]

I find that, from the very first, purple has been in use at Rome, but that Romulus employed it for the trabea. ^[Note] As to the toga prætexta and the laticlave ^[Note] vestment, it is a fact well ascertained, that Tullus Hostilius was the first king who made use of them, and that after the conquest of the Etruscans. Cornelius Nepos, who died in the reign of the late Emperor Augustus, has left the following remarks: "In the days of my youth," says he, "the violet purple was in favour, a pound of which used to sell at one hundred denarii; and not long after, the Tarentine ^[Note] red was all the fashion. This last was

succeeded by the Tyrian dibapha, ^[Note] which could not be bought for even one thousand denarii per pound. P. Lentulus Spinther, the curule ædile, was the first who used the dibapha for the prætexta, and he was greatly censured for it; whereas now-a-days," says he, "who is there that does not have purple hangings ^[Note] to his banqueting-couches, even?"

This Spinther was ædile in the consulship of Cicero, and in the year from the Building of the City, 691. "Dibapha" was the name given to textures that had been doubly dyed, and these were looked upon as a mighty piece of costly extravagance; while now, at the present day, nearly all the purple cloths that are reckoned of any account are dyed in a similar manner.

Fabrics that are called conchyliated are subjected to the same process in all other respects, but without any admixture of the juice of the buccinum; in addition to which, the liquid is mixed with water and human urine in equal parts, ^[Note] one-half ^[Note] only of the proportion of dye being used for the same quantity of wool. From this mixture a full colour is not obtained, but that pale tint, which is so highly esteemed; and the clearer ^[Note] it is, the less of it the wool has imbibed.

(40.) The prices of these dyes vary in proportion to the quantity produced by the various shores; still, however, those who are in the habit of paying enormous prices for them, may as well be informed that on no occasion ought the juice of

of the pelagiæ to exceed fifty, ^[Note] and that of the buccinum one hundred sesterces for one hundred pounds. ^[Note]

But no sooner have we finished with one branch of this subject than we have to begin upon another, for we find that it is made quite a matter of sport to create expense; and not only this, but the sport must be doubled by making new mixtures and combinations, and falsifying over again what was a falsification of the works of Nature already; such, for instance, as staining tortoise-shell, ^[Note] alloying gold with silver for the purpose of making electrum, ^[Note] and then adding copper to the mixture to make Corinthian metal. ^[Note]

(41.) It was not sufficient to have borrowed from a precious stone the name of "amethyst" for a dye, but when we have obtained this colour we must drench it over again with Tyrian tints, ^[Note] so that we may have an upstart name ^[Note] compounded of both, and at the same moment a two-fold display of luxury; for as soon as ever people have succeeded in obtaining the conchyliated colour, they immediately begin to think that it will do better as a state of transition to the Tyrian hues. There can be little doubt that this invention is due to some artist who happened to change his mind, and alter a tint with which he was not pleased: hence a system has taken its rise, and spirits, ever on the rack for creating wonders, have transformed what was originally a blunder into something quite desirable; while, at the same time, a double path has

been pointed out to luxury, in thus making one colour carry another, and thereby become, as they say, softer and more mellow. And what is even more than this, human ingenuity has even learned to mingle with these dyes the productions of the earth, and to steep in Tyrian purple fabrics already dyed crimson with the berry of the kermes, in order to produce the hysginian ^[Note] tint. The kermes of Galatia, a red berry which we shall mention when we come to speak ^[Note] of the productions of the earth, is the most esteemed of all, except, perhaps, the one that grows in the vicinity of Emerita, ^[Note] in Lusitania. However, to make an end, once for all, of my description of these precious dyes, I shall remark, that the colour yielded by this grain ^[Note] when a year old, is of a pallid hue, and that if it is more than four years old, it is quickly discharged: hence we find that its energies are not developed either when it is too young or when old.

I have now abundantly treated of an art, by means of which men, just as much as women, have an idea that their appearance may be set off to the greatest possible advantage.

Belonging to the shell-fish tribe there is the pinna ^[Note] also: it is found ^[Note] in slimy spots, always lying upright, and never

without a companion, which some writers call the pinnotheres, ^[Note] and others, again, pinnophylax, being a small kind of shrimp, or else a parasitical crab. The pinna, ^[Note] which is destitute of sight, opens its shell, and in so doing exposes its body within to the attacks of the small fish, which immediately rush upon it, and finding that they can do so with impunity, become bolder and bolder, till at last they quite fill the shell. The pinnotheres, looking out for the opportunity, gives notice to the pinna at the critical moment by a gentle bite, upon which the other instantly closes its shell, and so kills whatever it has caught there; after which, it divides the spoil with its companion.

Upon ^[Note] reflecting on such facts as these, I am the more inclined to wonder at the circumstance that some persons have been found who were of opinion that the water animals are devoid of all sense. The torpedo ^[Note] is very well aware of the extent of its own powers, and that, too, although it experiences no benumbing effects from them itself. Lying concealed in

the mud, it awaits the approach of the fish, and, at the moment that they are swimming above in supposed security, communicates the shock, and instantly darts upon them: there is no delicate ^[Note] morsel in existence that is preferred to the liver of this fish. And no less wonderful, too, is the shrewdness ^[Note] manifested by the sea-frog, ^[Note] which is known by us as the "fisher." Stirring up the mud, it protrudes from the surface two little horns, which project from beneath the eyes, and so attracts the small fish which are sporting around it, until at last they approach so close that it is able to seize them. In a similar manner, too, the squatina and the rhombus ^[Note] conceal themselves, but extend their fins, which, as they move to and fro, resemble little worms; the ray also does the same. The pastinaca, ^[Note] too, lies lurking in ambush, and pierces the fish as they pass with the sting with which it is armed. Another proof of instinctive shrewdness is the fact, that although the ray is the very slowest of all the fish in its movements, it is found with the mullet in its belly, which is the swiftest of them all.

(43.) The scolopendra, ^[Note] which bears a strong resemblance ^[Note]

to the land insect which we call a centipede, if it chances to swallow a hook, will vomit forth all its intestines, until it has disengaged itself, after which it will suck them in again. The sea-fox ^[Note] too, when exposed to a similar peril, goes on swallowing the line until it meets with a weak part of it, and then with its teeth snaps it asunder with the greatest ease. The fish called the glanis ^[Note] is more cautious; it bites at the hooks from behind, and does not swallow them, but only strips them of the bait.

(44.) The sea-ram ^[Note] commits its ravages just like a wary robber; at one time it will lurk in the shadow of some large vessel that is lying out at sea, and wait for any one who may be tempted to swim; while at another, it will raise its head from the surface of the water, survey the fishermen's boats, and then slily swim towards them and sink them.

Indeed, for my own part, I am strongly of opinion that there is sense existing in those bodies which have the nature ^[Note] of neither animals nor vegetables, but a third which partakes of them both:—sea-nettles and sponges, I mean. The sea-nettle ^[Note] wanders to and fro by night, and at night changes its locality. These creatures are by nature a sort of fleshy branch, ^[Note] and are nurtured upon flesh. They have the power of producing an

itching, smarting pain, ^[Note] just like that caused by the nettle found on land. For the purpose of seeking its prey, it contracts and stiffens itself to the utmost possible extent, and then, as a small fish swims past, it will suddenly spread out its branches, and so seize and devour ^[Note] it. At another time it will assume the appearance of being quite withered away, and let itself be tossed ^[Note] to and fro by the waves like a piece of sea-weed, until it happens to touch a fish. The moment it does so, the fish goes to rub itself against a rock, to get rid of the itching; immediately upon which, the nettle pounces upon it. By night also it is on the look-out for scallops and sea-urchins. When it perceives a hand approaching it, it instantly changes its colour, and contracts itself; when touched it produces a burning sensation, and if ever so short a time is afforded, makes its escape. Its mouth is situate, it is said, at the root or lower part, ^[Note] and the excrements ^[Note] are discharged by a small canal situated above.

We find three ^[Note] kinds of sponges mentioned; the first are

thick, very hard, and rough, and are called "tragi:" ^[Note] the second, are thick, and much softer, and are called "mani;" ^[Note] of the third, being fine and of a closer texture, tents for sores are made; this last is known as "Achillium." ^[Note] All of these sponges grow on rocks, and feed upon ^[Note] shell-and other fish, and slime. It would appear that these creatures, too, have some intelligence; for as soon as ever they feel ^[Note] the hand about to tear them off, they contract themselves, and are separated with much greater difficulty: they do the same also when the waves buffet them to and fro. The small shells that are found in them, clearly show that they live upon food: about Torone ^[Note] it is even said that they will survive after they have been detached, and that they grow again from the roots

which have been left adhering to the rock. They leave a colour similar to that of blood upon the rock from which they have been detached, and those more especially which are produced in the Syrtes of Africa. ^[Note]

The manos is the one that grows to the largest size, but the softest of all are those found in the vicinity of Lycia. Where the sea is deep and calm, they are more particularly soft, while those which are found in the Hellespont are rough, and those in the vicinity of Malea coarse. ^[Note] When lying in places exposed to the sun, they become putrid: hence it is that those which are found in deep water are the best. While they are alive, they are of the same blackish colour that they are when saturated with water. They adhere to the rock not by one part only, nor yet by the whole body: and within them there are a number of empty tubes, generally four or five in number, by means of which, it is thought, they take their food. There are other tubes also, but these are closed at the upper extremity; and a sort of membrane is supposed to be spread beneath the roots by which they adhere. It is well known that sponges are very long-lived. The most inferior kind of all are those which are called "aplysiæ," ^[Note] because it is impossible to clean them: these have large tubes, while the other parts of them are thick and coarse.

Vast numbers of dog-fish infest the seas in the vicinity of the sponges, to the great peril of those who dive for them. These persons say that a sort of dense cloud gradually thickens over their ^[Note] heads, bearing the resemblance of some kind of

animal like a flat-fish, ^[Note] and that, pressing downward upon them, it prevents them from returning to the surface. It is for this reason that they carry stilettos with them, ^[Note] which are very sharp at the point, and attached to them by strings; for if they did not pierce the object with the help of these, it could not be got rid of. This, however, is entirely the result, in my opinion, of the darkness and their own fears; for no person has ever yet been able to find, among living creatures, the fish-cloud or the fish-fog, the name which they give to this enemy of theirs.

The divers, however, have terrible combats with the dogfish, which attack with avidity the groin, the heels, and all the whiter parts of the body. The only means of ensuring safety, is to go boldly to meet them, and so, by taking the initiative, strike them with alarm: for, in fact, this animal is just as frightened at man, as man is at it; and they are on quite an equal footing when beneath the water. But the moment the diver has reached the surface, the danger is much more imminent; for he loses the power of boldly meeting his adversary while he is endeavouring to make his way out of the water, and his only chance of safety is in his companions, who draw him along by a cord that is fastened under his shoulders. While he is engaging with the enemy, he keeps pulling this cord with his left hand, according as there may be any sign of immediate peril, while with the right he wields the stiletto, which he is using in his defence. At first they draw him along at a moderate pace, but as soon as ever they have got him close to the ship, if they do not whip him out in an instant, with the greatest possible celerity, they see him snapped asunder; and many a time, too, the diver, even when already drawn out, is dragged from their hands, through neglecting to aid the efforts of those who are assisting him, by rolling up his body in the shape of a ball. The others, it is true, are in the meantime brandishing their pronged fish-spears; but the monster has the craftiness to place himself beneath the ship, and so

wage the warfare in safety. Consequently, every possible care is taked by the divers to look out ^[Note] for the approach of this enemy.

(47.) It is the surest sign of safety to see flat-fish, which never frequent the spots where these noxious monsters are found: and it is for this reason that the divers ^[Note] call them sacred.

Those animals, however, it must be admitted, which lie enclosed in a stony shell, have no sensation whatever—such as the oyster, ^[Note] for instance. Many, again, have the same nature as vegetables; such as the holothuria, ^[Note] the pulmones, ^[Note] and the sea-stars. ^[Note] Indeed, I may say that there is no land produc-

tion which has not its like in the sea; ^[Note] no, not even those insects which frequent our public-houses ^[Note] in summer, and are so trouble- some with their nimble leaps, nor yet those which more especially make the human hair their place of refuge; for these are often drawn up in a mass ^[Note] collected around the bait. This, too, is supposed to be the reason why the sleep of fish is sometimes so troubled in the night. Upon some fish, indeed, these animals breed ^[Note] as parasites: among these, we find the fish known as the chalcis. ^[Note]

Nor yet are dire and venomous substances found wanting in the sea: such, for instance, as the sea-hare ^[Note] of the Indian seas,

which is even poisonous by the very touch, and immediately produces vomiting and disarrangement of the stomach. In our seas it has the appearance of a shapeless mass, and only resembles the hare in colour; in India it resembles it in its larger size, and in its hair, which is only somewhat coarser: there it is never taken alive. An equally deadly animal is the sea-spider, ^[Note] which is especially dangerous for a sting which it has on the back: but there is nothing that is more to be dreaded than the sting which protrudes from the tail of the trygon, ^[Note] by our people known as the pastinaca, a weapon five inches in length. Fixing this in the root of a tree, the fish is able to kill it; it can pierce armour too, just as though with an arrow, and to the strength of iron it adds all the corrosive qualities of poison.

We do not find it stated that all kinds of fishes are subject to epizoötic diseases, ^[Note] like other animals of a wild nature:

but it is evidently the fact that individuals ^[Note] among them are attacked by maladies, from the emaciated appearance that many present, while at the same moment others of the same species are taken quite remarkable for their fatness.

The curiosity and wonder which have been excited in mankind by this subject, will not allow me any longer to defer giving an account of the generation of these animals. Fishes couple by rubbing their bellies ^[Note] against one another; an operation, however, that is performed with such extraordinary celerity as to escape the sight. Dolphins ^[Note] also, and other animals of the cetaceous kind, couple in a similar manner, though the time occupied in so doing is somewhat longer. The female fish, at the season for coupling, follows the male, and strikes against its belly with its muzzle; while the male in its turn, when the female is about to spawn, follows it and devours ^[Note] the eggs. But with them, the simple act of coupling is not sufficient ^[Note] for the purposes of reproduction; it is necessary for the male to pass among the eggs which the female has produced, in order to sprinkle them with its vitalizing fluid. This does not, however, reach all the eggs out of so vast a multitude; indeed, if it did, the seas and lakes would soon be filled, seeing that each female produces these eggs in quantities innumerable. ^[Note]

(51.) The eggs ^[Note] of fishes grow in the sea; some of them with the greatest rapidity, those of the muræna, for instance; others, again, somewhat more slowly. Those among the flat fishes, ^[Note] whose tails or stings are not in the way, as well as those of the turtle kind, couple the one upon the other: the polypus by attaching one of its feelers to the nostrils ^[Note] of the female, the sæpia and loligo, by means of the tongue; uniting the arms, they then swim contrary ways; these last also bring forth at the mouth. The polypi, ^[Note] however, couple with the head downwards towards the ground, while the rest of the soft ^[Note] fish couple backwards in the same manner as the dog; cray-fish and shrimps do the same, and crabs employ the mouth.

Frogs leap the one upon the other, the male with its forefeet clasping the armpits of the female, and with its hinder ones the haunches. The female produces tiny pieces of black flesh, which are known by the name of gyrini, ^[Note] and are only

to be distinguished by the eyes and tail; very soon, however, the feet are developed, and the tail, becoming bifurcate, forms the hind legs. It is a most singular thing, but, after a life of six months' duration, frogs melt away ^[Note] into slime, though no one ever sees how it is done; after which they come to life again in the water during the spring, just as they were ^[Note] before. This is effected by some occult operation of Nature, and happens regularly every year.

Mussels, also, and scallops are produced in the sand by the spontaneous ^[Note] operations of nature. Those which have a harder shell, such as the murex and the purple, are formed from a viscous fluid like saliva, just as gnats are produced from liquids turned sour, ^[Note] and the fish called the apua, ^[Note] "from the foam of the sea when warm, after the fall of a shower.

Those fish, again, which are covered with a stony coat, such as the oyster, are produced from mud in a putrid state, or else from the foam that has collected around ships which have been lying for a long time in the same position, about posts driven into the earth, and more especially around logs of wood. ^[Note] It has been discovered, of late years, in the oyster—Beds, ^[Note] that

the animal discharges an impregnating liquid, ^[Note] which has the appearance of milk. Eels, again, rub themselves against rocks, upon which, the particles ^[Note] which they thus scrape from off their bodies come to life, such being their only means of reproduction. The various kinds of fishes do not couple out of their own kind, with the exception of the squatina and the ray. ^[Note] The fish that is produced from the union of these two, resembles a ray in the fore part, and bears a name among the Greeks compounded of the two. ^[Note]

Certain animals are produced only at certain seasons of the year, both in water and on the land, such, for instance, as scallops, snails, and leeches, in the spring, which also disappear at stated periods. Among fishes, the wolf-fish ^[Note] and the trichias ^[Note] bring forth twice in the year, as also do all kinds of rock-fish; the mullet and the chalcis ^[Note] thrice in the year, the cyprinus ^[Note] six times, the scorpæna ^[Note] twice, and the sargus in spring and autumn. Among the flat-fish, the squatina brings forth twice

a year, being the only ^[Note] one that does so at the setting of the ^[Note] Vergiliæ in autumn. Most fish spawn in the three months of April, May, and June. The salpa brings forth in the autumn, the sargus, the torpedo, and the squalus ^[Note] about the time of the autumnal equinox. The soft fishes ^[Note] bring forth in spring, the sæpia every month in the year; its eggs adhere together with a kind of black glutinous substance, in appearance like a bunch of grapes, and the male is very careful to go among them and breathe ^[Note] upon them, as otherwise they would be barren. The polypi couple in winter, and produce eggs in the spring twisted in spiral clusters, in a similar manner to the tendrils of the vine; and so remarkably prolific are they, that when the animal is killed in a state of pregnancy, the cavities of the head are quite unable to contain the multitude ^[Note] of eggs enclosed therein. They bring forth these eggs at the fiftieth day, but in consequence of the vast number of them, great multitudes perish. Cray-fish, and other sea-animals with a thinner crust, lay their eggs one upon the other, and then sit upon them. The female polypus sometimes sits upon its eggs, and at other times closes the entrance of its retreat by spreading out its feelers, interlaced like a net. The sæpia brings forth on dry land, among reeds or such sea-weed as it may find growing there, and hatches its eggs on the fifteenth day. The loligo produces its eggs out at sea, clustered together like those of the sæpia. The purple, ^[Note] the murex, and other fishes of the same kind, bring forth in the spring. Sea-urchins have their eggs at full moon during the winter; sea-snails ^[Note] also are produced during the winter season.

The torpedo is known to have as many as eighty young

ones. It produces within itself ^[Note] very soft eggs, which it then transfers to another place in the uterus, and from that part ejects them. The same is the case with all those fish to which we have given the name of cartilaginous; hence it is, that these alone of all the fishes are at once viviparous and oviparous. The male silurus ^[Note] is the only fish among them all that watches the eggs after they are brought forth, often for as long a period as fifty days, that they may not be devoured by other fish. The females of other kinds bring forth their eggs in the course of three days, if the male has only touched them.

The sea-needle, ^[Note] or the belone, is the only fish in which the multitude of its eggs, in spawning, causes the belly to open asunder; but immediately after it has brought forth, the wound heals again: a thing which, it is said, is the case with the blind-worm as well. The sea-mouse ^[Note] digs a hole in the earth, deposits its eggs there, and then covers them up. On the thirtieth day it opens the hole, and leads its young to the water.

The fishes called the ervthinus ^[Note] and the channe ^[Note] are said to

have a womb; and those which by the Greeks are called trochi, ^[Note] it is said, impregnate themselves. The young of all aquatic animals are without sight at their birth. ^[Note]

We have lately heard of a remarkable instance of length of life in fish. Pausilypum ^[Note] is the name of a villa in Campania, not far from Neapolis; here, as we learn from the works of M. Annsaus Seneca, a fish is known to have died sixty years after it had been placed in the preserves of Cæsar ^[Note] by Vedius Pollio; while others of the same kind, and its equals in age, were living at the time that he wrote. This mention of fish-preserves reminds me that I ought to mention a few more particulars connected with this subject, before we leave the aquatic animals.

The first person who formed artificial oyster-beds was Ser-

gius Orata, ^[Note] who established them at Baiæ, in the time of L. Crassus, the orator, just before the Marsic War. This was done by him, not for the gratification of gluttony, but of avarice, as he contrived to make a large income by this exercise of his ingenuity. He was the first, too, to invent hanging baths, ^[Note] and after buying villas and trimming them up, he would every now and then sell them again. ^[Note] He, too, was the first to adjudge the pre-eminence for delicacy of flavour to the oysters of Lake Lucrinus; ^[Note] for every kind of aquatic animal is superior in one place to what it is in another. Thus, for instance, the wolf-fish of the river Tiber is the best that is caught between the two bridges, ^[Note] and the turbot of Ravenna is the most esteemed, the murena of Sicily, the elops of Rhodes; the same, too, as to the other kinds, not to go through all the items of the culinary catalogue. The British ^[Note] shores had not as yet sent their supplies, at the time when Orata thus ennobled the Lucrine oysters: at a later period, however, it was thought worth while to fetch oysters all the way from Brundisium, at the very extremity of Italy; and in order that there might exist no rivalry ^[Note] between the two flavours, a plan has been

more recently hit upon, of feeding the oysters of Brundisium in Lake Lucrinus, famished as they must naturally be after so long a journey.

In the same age, also, Licinius Murena ^[Note] was the first to form preserves for other fish; and his example was soon followed by the noble families of the Philippi and the Hortensii. Lucullus had a mountain pierced near Naples, at a greater outlay even, than that which had been expended on his villa; and here he formed a channel, ^[Note] and admitted the sea to his preserves; it was for this reason that Pompeius Magnus gave him the name of " Xerxes in a toga." ^[Note] After his death, the fish in his preserves was sold for the sum of four million sesterces.

C. Hirrus ^[Note] was the first person who formed preserves for the murena; and it was he who lent six thousand of these fishes for the triumphal banquets of Cæsar the Dictator; on which occasion he had them duly weighed, as he declined to receive the value of them in money or any other commodity. His villa, which was of a very humble character in the interior, sold for four millions ^[Note] of sesterces, in consequence of the valuable nature of the stock-ponds there. Next after this, there arose a passion for individual fish. At Bauli, ^[Note] in the territory

of Baiæ, the orator Hortensius had some fish-preserves, in which there was a murena to which he became so much attached, as to be supposed to have wept on hearing of its death. ^[Note] It was at the same villa that Antonia, ^[Note] the wife of Drusus, placed earrings upon a murena which she had become fond of; the report of which singular circumstance attracted many visitors to the place.

Fulvius Lupinus ^[Note] first formed preserves for sea-snails, ^[Note] in the territory of Tarquinii, shortly before the civil war between Cæsar and Pompeius Magnus. He also carefully distinguished them by their several species, separating them from one another. The white ones were those that are produced in the district of Reate; ^[Note] those of Illyria were remarkable for the largeness of their size; while those from Africa were the most prolific; those, however, from the Promontory of the Sun ^[Note] were the most esteemed of all. For the purpose, also, of fattening them, lie invented a mixture of boiled wine, ^[Note] spelt-meal, and other substances; so that fattened periwinkles even became quite an object of gastronomy; and the art of breeding them was brought to such a pitch of perfection, that the shell of a single animal would hold as much as eighty quadrantes. ^[Note] This we learn from M. Varro.

Besides these, there are still some wonderful kinds of fishes ^[Note] which we find mentioned by Theophrastus: he says, that when the waters subside, which have been admitted for the purposes of irrigation in the vicinity of Babylon, there are certain fish which remain in such holes as may contain water; from these they come forth for the purpose of feeding, moving along with their fins by the aid of a rapid movement of the tail. If pursued, he says, they retreat to their holes, and, when they have reached them, will turn round and make a stand. The head is like that of the sea-frog, while the other parts are similar to those of the gobio, ^[Note] and they have gills like other fish. He says also, that in the vicinity of Heraclea and Cromna, ^[Note] and about the river Lycus, as well as in many parts of the Euxine, there is one kind of fish ^[Note] which frequents the waters near the banks of the rivers, and makes holes for itself, in which it lives, even when the water retires and the bed of the river is dry; for which reason these fishes have to be dug out of the ground, and only show by the movement of the body that they are still alive. He says also, that in the vicinity of the same Heraclea, when the river Lycus ebbs, the eggs are left in the mud, and that the fish, on being produced from these, go forth to seek their food by means of a sort of fluttering motion,—their gills being but very small, in consequence of which they are not in need of water; for this

reason it is that eels also can live so long out of water; ^[Note] and that their eggs come to maturity on dry land, like those of the sea-tortoise ^[Note]. In the same regions also of the Euxine, he says, various kinds of fishes are overtaken by the ice, the gobio more particularly, and they only betray signs of life, by moving when they have warmth applied by the saucepan. All these things, however, though very remarkable, still admit of some explanation. He tells us also, that in Paphlagonia, land fishes are dug up that are most excellent eating; these, he says, are found in deep holes or spots where there is no standing water whatever, and he expresses his surprise at their being thus produced without any contact with moisture, stating it as his opinion, that there is some innate virtue in these holes, ^[Note] similar to that of wells; as if, indeed, fishes really were to be found in wells. ^[Note] However this may be, these facts, at all events, render the life of the mole under ground less a matter for surprise; unless, perhaps, these fishes mentioned by Theophrastus are similar in nature to the earth-worm.

But all these things, singular as they are, are rendered credible by a marvel which exceeds them all, at the time of the inundation of the Nile; for, the moment that it subsides, little mice ^[Note] are found, the first rudiments of which have been

formed by the generative powers of the waters and the earth: in one part of the body they are already alive, while in that which is of later formation, they are still composed of earth.

Nor would it be right to omit what is said about the fish called anthias, and which I find is looked upon as true by most writers. I have already mentioned ^[Note] the Chelidoniæ, certain islands off the coast of Asia; they are situate off a promontory there, in the midst of a sea full of crags and reefs. These parts are much frequented by this fish, which is very speedily taken by the employment of a single method of catching it. A fisherman pushes out in a little boat, dressed in a colour resembling that of his boat; and every day, for several days together, at the same hour, he sails over the same space, while doing which he throws a quantity of bait into the sea. Whatever is thrown from the boat is an object of suspicion to the fish, who keep at a distance from what causes them so much alarm; but after this has been repeated a considerable number of times, one of the fish, reassured by becoming habituated to the scene, at last snaps at the bait. The movements of this one are watched with the greatest care and attention, for in it are centred all the hopes of the fishermen, as it is to be the means of securing them their prey; nor, indeed, is it difficult to recognize it, seeing that for some days it is the only one that ventures to come near the bait. At last, however, it finds some others to follow its example, and by degrees it is better and better attended, till at last it brings with it shoals innumerable. The older ones, at length becoming quite accustomed to the fisherman, easily recognize him, and will even take food from his hands. Upon this, the man throws out, a little way beyond the tips of his fingers, a hook concealed in a bait, and smuggles them out one by one, rather than catches them, standing in the shadow of the boat and whipping them out of the water with a slight jerk, that the others may not perceive it; while another fisherman is ready inside to receive them upon pieces of cloth, in order that no floundering about or other noise may scare the others away. It is of importance to know

which has been the betrayer of the others, and not to take it, otherwise the shoal will take to flight, and appear no more for the future. ^[Note] There is a story that a fisherman, having quarrelled once with his mate, threw out a hook to one of these leading fishes, which he easily recognized, and so captured it with a malicious intent. The fish, however, was recognized in the market by the other fisherman, against whom he had conceived this malice; who accordingly brought an action against him for damages; ^[Note] and, as Mucianus adds, he was condemned to pay them on the hearing of the case. These anthiæ, it is said, when they see one of their number taken with a hook, cut the line with the serrated spines which they have on the back, the one that is held fast stretching it out as much as it can, to enable them to cut it. But among the sargi, the fish itself, that is held fast, rubs the line asunder against the rocks.

In addition to what I have already stated, I find that authors, distinguished for their wisdom, express surprise at finding a star in the sea-for such, in fact, is the form of the animal, which has but very little flesh ^[Note] within, and nothing but a hard skin without. It is said that in this fish there is such a fiery heat, that it scorches everything it meets with in the sea, and instantaneously digests its food. By what experiments ^[Note] all this came to be known, I cannot so easily say; but I am about to make mention of one fact which is more remarkable still, and which we have the opportunity of testing by every day's experience.

Belonging also to the class of shell-fish is the dactylus, ^[Note] a fish so called from its strong resemblance to the human nails. It is the property of these fish to shine brightly in the dark, when all other lights are removed, and the more moisture they have, the brighter is the light they emit. In the mouth even, while they are being eaten, they give forth their light, and the same too when in the hands; the very drops, in fact, that fall from them on the ground, or on the clothes, are of the same nature. Hence it is beyond a doubt, that it is a liquid that possesses this peculiar property, which, even in a solid body, would be a ground for considerable surprise.

There are also marvellous instances to be found of antipathies and sympathies existing between them. The mullet and the wolf-fish ^[Note] are animated with a mutual hatred; and so too, the conger and the murena gnaw each other ^[Note] tails. The crayfish has so great a dread of the polypus, that if it sees it near, it expires in an instant: the conger dreads the cray-fish; while, again, the conger tears the body of the polypus. Nigidius informs us that the wolf-fish gnaws the tail of the mullet, and yet that, during certain months, they are on terms of friendship; all those, however, which thus lose their tails, survive their misfortune. On the other hand, in addition to those which we have already mentioned as going in company together, an instance of friendship is found in the balæna and the musculus, ^[Note]

for, as the eye—Brows of the former are very heavy, they sometimes fall over its eyes, and quite close them by their ponderousness, upon which the musculus swims before, and points out the shallow places which are likely to prove inconvenient to its vast bulk, ^[Note] thus serving it in the stead of eyes. We shall now have to speak of the nature of the birds.

SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, 650.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Turranius Gracilis, ^[Note] Trogus, ^[Note] Mæcenas, ^[Note] Alfius Flavus, ^[Note] Cornelius Nepos, ^[Note] Laberius the Mimographer, ^[Note] Fabianus, ^[Note] Fenestella, ^[Note] Mucianus, ^[Note] Ælius

Stilo, ^[Note] Statius Sebosus, ^[Note] Melissus, ^[Note] Seneca, ^[Note] Cicero, ^[Note] Æmilius Macer, ^[Note] Messala Corvinus, ^[Note] Trebius Niger, ^[Note] Nigidius. ^[Note] FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Aristotle, ^[Note] King Archelaus, ^[Note] Callimachus, ^[Note] Democritus, ^[Note] Theophrastus, ^[Note] Thrasyllus, ^[Note] Hegesidemus, ^[Note] Cythnius, ^[Note] Alexander Polyhistor. ^[Note]